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White chocolate

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This article is about the confection. For other uses, see White chocolate (disambiguation).
White chocolate
White chocolate tablet
TypeChocolate
Place of originSwitzerland
Created byNestlé
Invented1936
Main ingredientsCocoa butter, sugar, milk solids
Ingredients generally usedVanilla

White chocolate is a form of chocolate made of cocoa butter, sugar and milk. Unlike milk and dark chocolate, it does not contain cocoa solids, which darken the chocolate. White chocolate has an ivory color, and can smell of biscuit, vanilla or caramel, although it can also easily pick up smells from the environment, and become rancid with its relatively short shelf life. Like milk and dark chocolate, white chocolate is used to make chocolate bars and as a coating in confectionery.

Of the three main types of chocolate, white chocolate is the newest. It was first commercially sold by Swiss company Nestlé in 1936 and manufactured and nationally distributed in the United States in 1984. Even though it was branded as chocolate, some consumers found calling the confectionary product "chocolate" controversial; greater acceptance of the classification only came with the 21st century.[citation needed] That century, manufacturers began producing more premium white chocolate, and in the United Kingdom the traditionally children's product was marketed to adults for the first time. c. 2005, a variant called blond chocolate was invented, produced by slowly cooking white chocolate across multiple days.

White chocolate is made in a five-step process. First, the ingredients are mixed together to form a paste. Next, the paste is refined, reducing particle size to a powder. It is then agitated for several hours in a process known as conching, after which the product is further processed to ensure the product sold is standardized. Finally, the chocolate is tempered by heating, cooling and reheating the mass, improving the product's appearance, stability and snap.

In 2022, white chocolate made up 10% of the chocolate market. As of 2024, sales are projected to grow by around 5% annually for the next few years, driven by an increase in consumption of premium white chocolate, particularly in Europe.

History

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See also: History of chocolate
1936 ad for Milkybar

Before modern white chocolate was created, some chocolate was referred to as white chocolate. This can be seen in a list of supplies from 1783, although its meaning is unknown. The description of the chocolate as white is speculated to mean it was lighter than other chocolate, to denote that it was made from what was then classified as a cacao variety, Theobroma alba (white cacao)[1] or to refer to an ancient method of preparing chocolate named "white cacao".[2]

While the history of white chocolate is unclear, there is a consensus that the first commercial white chocolate tablet, Nestlé Galak (known as Milkybar in the United Kingdom), was launched by the Swiss company Nestlé in 1936. Making white chocolate was said to be a way to use milk powder and cocoa butter, which were then produced in excess.[3][4] According to Nestlé, white chocolate was originally a coating for a vitamin product they were making with pharmaceutical group Roche.[5] From 1961 to 2010, Nestlé successfully marketed Milkybar chocolate with "The Milkybar Kid", a blonde child sporting spectacles and a cowboy suit; after 2010 the character was portrayed by adults.[6] Historically in the United Kingdom, white chocolate has been closely associated with children[7] and there, Milkybar has been marketed as a chocolate for children.[8] As of 1992, the Milkybar constituted 80% of the £41,000,000 UK white chocolate market.[9]

In Spain, white chocolate became common in the early 1970s and by the late 1990s had four rival brands selling white chocolate. Since the late 1970s in Japan, White Day has been celebrated on March 14, following its promotion by chocolate companies. On this day, men give white chocolate to women who had given them dark chocolate on Valentine's Day a month earlier.[10][11] In 1973, a white chocolate variety of Toblerone was created.[12]

White chocolate was not made and mass distributed in the United States until 1984, when Nestlé released Alpine White, a white chocolate bar which contained almonds marketed to the "female indulgence" market.[3][8] That decade, white chocolate gained popularity in the United States as imports rose from Europe and white chocolate became trendy. Marketing associated the product with Europe.[13] Growth was driven by perceptions of white chocolate as "lighter and more delicate" than other types of chocolate.[14] By the 1990s, however, white chocolate had become unpopular and disliked.[15] During the 1990s, Nestlé discontinued Alpine White in 1993 and The Hershey Company introduced Hershey's Cookies 'n' Creme to the US market, a white chocolate product embedded with cookie chunks.[16] As of 2001, much of the white chocolate sold in the United States was made of palm kernel oils or hydrogenated fats and called "compound coating". It was sold as "ivory", "blanc", or just wrapped in clear plastic bags. Consumers had difficulty distinguishing white chocolate made with and without cocoa butter.[15] In 2002, the FDA regulated a standard of identity for white chocolate for the first time, after extensive lobbying from the Hershey's and the Chocolate Manufacturers Association (now part of the National Confectioners Association).[17][4] This was enforced from 2004, requiring white chocolate to be made of at least 20% cocoa butter for the first time.[18]

The market for premium white chocolate has grown in the 21st century. Above: white chocolate containing rose petals

Around the start of the start of the 21st century in the United Kingdom, chocolate makers began marketing white chocolate to adults, with Cadbury releasing Cadbury Snowflake and Dream, and Nestle releasing white chocolate versions of Aero and Kit-Kat.[19] Today, white chocolate is considered acceptable for adults to eat, as seen by its inclusion in assortment boxes.[7] In the United States during the 21st century, chocolate makers made more higher-quality white chocolate, in part in response to a rise in the cost of cocoa butter.[4] Since 2012, the French chocolate manufacturer Valrhona has sold "blond chocolate", invented c. 2005 after white chocolate was accidentally left in a bain-marie for four days. As of 2024, Valrhona was lobbying the French government to recognize it as a separate type of chocolate.[20]

Manufacturing

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Ingredients

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White chocolate does not contain cocoa solids, the primary non-fat constituent of chocolate liquor; these are replaced by milk solids. During manufacturing, the dark-colored solids of the cocoa bean are separated from its fatty content, as with milk chocolate and dark chocolate, but, unlike with other forms of chocolate, no cocoa mass is added back. This makes cocoa butter the only cocoa ingredient in white chocolate.[21] As pure pressed cocoa butter has a flavor that can be considered unpleasant in some applications, before it is used in white chocolate it is partly deodorized. This involves steam distilling the cocoa butter under a vacuum,[22][23] or by using solvents.[4] If cocoa butter were fully deodorized, it would lose all cocoa flavor; as a result, less deodorized (and therefore having a more full flavor) cocoa butters are used in dark chocolates, while white chocolates use more deodorized cocoa butter.[23]

Beyond cocoa butter, milk chocolate contains sugar, milk solids, emulsifiers (such as soy lecithin), and flavors (such as vanilla). Manufacturers vary the milk solids used to create different effects. Some use yoghurt powder as a milk powder, as the acidity masks the sweetness of the sugar.[24] Other manufacturers substitute milk powder for "white" chocolate crumb (a mixture of sugar, milk and cocoa butter dried simultaneously[25]), to give it a caramelized flavor, and others make white chocolate softer by using skimmed milk powder and milk fat instead of full cream milk powder.[26] The ratio between cocoa butter, sugar and milk fat impacts the quality, and higher quality white chocolate recipes require less sugar, and more cocoa butter and milk fat.[27] In some chocolate, some cocoa butter is substituted for cocoa butter equivalents (CBEs) and cocoa butter substitutes (CBSs). CBEs are fats with similar triglyceride structures,[28] while CBSs are fats with dissimilar triglyceride structures that are refined to have similar qualities of hardness, mouthfeel and flavor release.[29][30]

Process

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The basic process of making white chocolate involves mixing, refining, conching, standardizing and tempering.[31]

In the mixing phase, cocoa butter is combined with sugar, milk solids, emulsifiers (such as soy lecithin), and flavors (such as vanilla).[31][32] These ingredients are mixed until a rough paste is formed.[31] After the ingredients are mixed, the mass enters a refining machine. This carries the mass through large steel rollers set to varying widths, turning the mass into a dry powder.[33][31] White chocolate is then transferred to a conching machine.[34] These machines mix and knead the mass, changing the flavor and texture.[35] White chocolate is conched between 40–50 °C (104–122 °F), the lowest temperature of the traditional types of chocolate;[36] conching at higher temperatures can give the chocolate undesirable flavors produced by the Maillard reaction.[26][37] After conching, the viscosity and taste of the mixture is standardized by adding flavorings, emulsifiers or cocoa butter. This is necessary, given the use of automatic molding and enrobing equipment.[34][35]

In the final step of production, the chocolate is tempered. While waiting to temper, the chocolate is kept in liquid chocolate storage. Storing white chocolate for this time is particularly difficult compared to other types of chocolate, as it tends to thicken at higher temperatures. To prevent this, the chocolate is constantly stirred while being held between 38–40 °C (100–104 °F).[38][39] Before tempering, chocolate is heated to ensure all the cocoa butter that has crystallized has melted. In white chocolate, this occurs at about 45 °C (113 °F), lower than milk and dark chocolates.[40] During tempering, chocolate is cooled to the point where the cocoa butter can begin to crystallize, and then heated to ensure that of the various crystal structures, only the most stable remain. For white chocolate, the temperatures the chocolate is cooled to and then heated to are lower than those needed for other chocolates; up to four degrees Celsius lower when compared to dark chocolate.[41] High milk fat contents in white and milk chocolates reduces the temperature at which they solidify. As a result, they require a comparatively high cooling time.[42]

Regulations

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Main article: Legal definitions of chocolate

Regulations govern what may be marketed as white chocolate: since 2000 in the European Union, white chocolate must be (by weight) at least 20% cocoa butter, 14% total milk solids of which enough milk fat is contained to make up 3.5%.[43] In January 2022, the European Food Safety Authority banned the food coloring agent, E171 (titanium dioxide), used as a common whitener in some white chocolate products.[44][45]

Since 2004 in the United States, the Code of Federal Regulations defined that white chocolate should contain "not less than 20 percent by weight of cacao fat", "not less than 3.5 percent by weight of milkfat and not less than 14 percent by weight of total milk solids", and "not more than 55 percent by weight of a nutritive carbohydrate sweetener" (generally sucrose).[46][47] Acceptable dairy elements when manufacturing white chocolate in the United States include evaporated milk, skim milk, buttermilk, and malted milk. White chocolate products may not contain artificial coloring agents.[46]

Characteristics

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White chocolate has an ivory color and can smell of biscuit, vanilla or caramel, but can also easily pick up undesirable environmental smells. This can give it undesirable smells of rancidity or cheese.[48] White chocolate made from nondeodorized cocoa butter retain the aroma of chocolate, but have an unappealing taste to most consumers.[a][49][50] Cocoa butter can contribute a yellow color to white chocolate, which can be considered undesirable.[51] Milk fats in white chocolate carry flavors, serve as flavor precursors, and provide flavor, some of these produced throughout the production process.[52] Undesirable flavors in white chocolate includes metal and paper or cardboard. The latter flavors can arise from exposure to oxygen.[48][53] It has a reputation as tasting overly sweet.[4]

As cocoa antioxidants that act as preservatives are mainly present in the dark cocoa material that white chocolate lacks, white chocolate has a shorter shelf life than milk and dark chocolate. The presence of milk fats in white chocolate also mean white chocolate cannot be packed in a transparent wrapper, as the milk fat is delicate, and will decompose faster if exposed to light.[54][52] Instead, metallized films are used.[55]

Nutrition

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Candies, white chocolate
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy2,250 kJ (540 kcal)
59.2
Sugars59
Dietary fiber0.2 g
32.1
5.87
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
1%
9 μg
Vitamin A30 IU
Thiamine (B1)
5%
0.063 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
22%
0.282 mg
Niacin (B3)
5%
0.745 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
12%
0.608 mg
Vitamin B6
3%
0.056 mg
Folate (B9)
2%
7 μg
Vitamin E
6%
0.96 mg
Vitamin K
8%
9.1 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
15%
199 mg
Copper
7%
0.06 mg
Iron
1%
0.24 mg
Magnesium
3%
12 mg
Manganese
0%
0.008 mg
Phosphorus
14%
176 mg
Potassium
10%
286 mg
Selenium
8%
4.5 μg
Sodium
4%
90 mg
Zinc
7%
0.74 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water1.3 g
Caffeine0 mg
Theobromine0 mg
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[56] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[57]

White chocolate is 59% carbohydrates, 32% fat, 6% protein, and 1% water (see table). In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), white chocolate supplies 540 kilocalories of food energy, is a rich source (22% of the Daily Value, DV) of riboflavin, and a moderate source (10-15% DV) of pantothenic acid, calcium, phosphorus, and potassium (table). White chocolate contains only trace amounts of the stimulants theobromine and caffeine, as these are present in the cocoa mass but not the cocoa butter.[21]

Market

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As of 2022, white chocolate accounted for about 10% percent of the overall chocolate market.[58] The smaller consumption of white chocolate compared to milk and dark chocolate has been attributed to white chocolate containing fewer aromatic compounds.[59] White chocolate is also controversial among some members of the public as to whether it is "really" chocolate,[60] contributing to a bad reputation added to by perceptions of it being too sweet and containing too many additives.[4] During the 2010s, white chocolate consumption declined as consumers opted for dark chocolate in light of attention to claims made about health benefits.[61] White chocolate, supplemented with fat soluble colors and flavors, is often used to coat candies and cakes in the United States.[62] In 2018, around half of the white chocolate was made of white chocolate bars, valued at US$19.18 billion.[63] As of two years later, Nestle's Milkybar white chocolate was the most popular white chocolate sold in the United Kingdom and Ireland.[64]

Belgium is a popular producer of white chocolate,[65] often mixing it with milk or dark chocolates as decoration.[19] Craft white chocolate is popular, particularly in Japan.[63][66] As of 2024, demand for artisanal white chocolate is increasing. This is a product of a general increase in demand for premium chocolate, driven in part by an increase in demand for organic, sugar-free, vegan and gluten-free chocolate. Beyond sales directly to customer, white chocolate is also sold industrially as compound chocolate, to be used by bakeries, confectioners and for making cookies and biscuits. The cosmetics industry also purchases white chocolate based on beliefs that it can help with "skin renewal and rejuvenation". It is thus used in body lotions and wax.[63]

Projected growth

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According to a market research report released in May 2024, the white chocolate market was projected to grow by US$9.11 billion at a compound annual growth rate of 4.87% for 2024–2028, driven by an increase in consumption in premium white chocolate. Europe was projected to account for 44% of this growth. These predictions were challenged by instability on the cocoa market that had occurred in recent years.[63]

Variations

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Vegan white chocolate, made with rice milk

Sugar-free and reduced sugar white chocolate contain maltitol, a sugar alcohol, instead of sucrose. As maltitol is a laxative, some manufacturers combine it with a fiber blend and stevia.[67] Alternatively, sorbitol or fructose are used as sucrose substitutes.[68] Sugar-free white chocolate also substitutes milk ingredients for lactose-free variants.[69] Other varieties of white chocolate include organic, vegan and gluten-free chocolate.[63]

Blond chocolate is made by slowly heating white chocolate, which triggers Maillard reactions, creating a chocolate with light caramel flavor.[20] White chocolate bars can be flavored and filled, including with butterscotch, caramel, coffee, fondant, honey, mint, nougat, nuts and vanilla.[63]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ According to Maricel Presilla, this chocolates tastes like higher-quality milk chocolate[49]

References

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  1. ^ Cabezon, Barriga & Grivetti (2009), p. 431.
  2. ^ Cabezon, Barriga & Grivetti (2009), p. 434.
  3. ^ a b This year's 'hot' chocolate 1990
  4. ^ a b c d e f Sethi (2017).
  5. ^ Marchetti (2019).
  6. ^ Hayward (2013), pp. 525–526.
  7. ^ a b Wohlmuth (2017), p. 492.
  8. ^ a b Hyde, Ellert & Killing (1991), p. 13.
  9. ^ Plant (1992), p. 14.
  10. ^ Creighton (1993), p. 6.
  11. ^ Hori (1998), p. 50.
  12. ^ Die Toblerone wird 100 2008
  13. ^ Kummer (1988).
  14. ^ Nichter & Nichter (1991), p. 273.
  15. ^ a b Murray (2001).
  16. ^ Zellner et al. 1999, p. 67
  17. ^ Thomas (2017), p. 671.
  18. ^ Gersema (2003).
  19. ^ a b Dowling (2002).
  20. ^ a b Rousseau (2024).
  21. ^ a b Zoumas, Kreisler & Martin (1980), pp. 314–316.
  22. ^ Beckett (2019), p. 53.
  23. ^ a b Kamphuis & Fowler (2017), p. 64.
  24. ^ Skytte & Kaylegian (2017), p. 131.
  25. ^ Wells (2017), p. 136.
  26. ^ a b Wohlmuth (2017), p. 497.
  27. ^ Wohlmuth (2017), p. 498.
  28. ^ Talbot (2017), p. 162.
  29. ^ Talbot (2017), p. 176.
  30. ^ Talbot (2017), p. 177.
  31. ^ a b c d Hofberger & Tanabe (2007), p. 682.
  32. ^ Jewett (2017), p. 474.
  33. ^ Presilla (2001), p. 64.
  34. ^ a b Hofberger & Tanabe (2007), p. 683.
  35. ^ a b Stauffer (2017), p. 545.
  36. ^ Wohlmuth (2017), p. 495.
  37. ^ Beckett, Paggios & Roberts (2017), p. 244.
  38. ^ Beckett (2019), pp. 95–96.
  39. ^ Walker (2017), p. 308.
  40. ^ Jewett (2017), p. 475.
  41. ^ Jewett (2017), pp. 474–475.
  42. ^ Gray & Máñez-Cortell (2017), p. 396.
  43. ^ "Directive 2000/36/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 June 2000 relating to cocoa and chocolate products intended for human consumption". 23 June 2000. Retrieved 27 October 2010.
  44. ^ Goodbye E171 2022
  45. ^ Boffey (2021).
  46. ^ a b "Title 21, Chapter I, Subchapter B, Part 163.124 (white chocolate) of the US Code of Federal Regulations". United States Government Publishing Office. 5 May 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2021.
  47. ^ Krüger (2017), p. 72.
  48. ^ a b Bau (2008), p. 38.
  49. ^ a b Presilla (2001), p. 183.
  50. ^ Beckett (2003), p. 140.
  51. ^ Kamphuis & Fowler (2017), p. 65.
  52. ^ a b Skytte & Kaylegian (2017), p. 108.
  53. ^ Skytte & Kaylegian (2017), p. 109.
  54. ^ Beckett (2019), p. 19.
  55. ^ Jones (2017), p. 640.
  56. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  57. ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. Archived from the original on 9 May 2024. Retrieved 21 June 2024.
  58. ^ "White Chocolate: Consumers Take Notice". 6 October 2022. Retrieved 26 March 2023.
  59. ^ Aydın, Kian-Pour & Toker (2021), p. 3182.
  60. ^ Leissle (2018), p. 55.
  61. ^ Afoakwa (2016), p. 37.
  62. ^ Wohlmuth (2017), p. 508.
  63. ^ a b c d e f technavio 2024
  64. ^ Twilley (2020).
  65. ^ Wohlmuth (2017), p. 493.
  66. ^ Cadby & Araki (2022), p. 4.
  67. ^ Beckett (2019), p. 117.
  68. ^ Wohlmuth (2017), p. 507.
  69. ^ Wohlmuth (2017), p. 506.

Sources

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Books

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  • Afoakwa, Emmanuel Ohene (8 April 2016). Chocolate Science and Technology. Wiley (publisher). ISBN 9781118913789.
  • Bau, Frédéric (2008). Chocolate Fusion: Chocolate in Cuisine (2nd English ed.). Montagud Editores. ISBN 978-84-7212-117-1.
  • Beckett, Stephen T (2019). The Science of Chocolate (3rd ed.). Croydon, United Kingdom: Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 9781788012355.
  • Beckett, Stephen T; Paggios, Konstantinos; Roberts, Ian (2017). "Conching". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN 978-1-118-78014-5.
  • Cabezon, Beatriz; Barriga, Patricia; Grivetti, Louis Evan (2009). "Blood, Conflict, and Faith". In Grivetti, Louis Evan; Shapiro, Howard-Yana (eds.). Chocolate: History, Culture, and Heritage. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-12165-8.
  • Gray, Michael P; Máñez-Cortell, Ángel (2017). "Moulding, enrobing and cooling chocolate products". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN 9781118780145.
  • Hofberger, Randall; Tanabe, Nina Ann (2007). "Chocolate and Cocoa". In Hui, Y H (ed.). Handbook of Food Products Manufacturing. New Jersey: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-04964-8.
  • Hori, G Victor Sögen (1998). "Japanese Zen in America: Americanizing the Face in the Mirror". The Faces of Buddhism in America. University of California Press. pp. 49–78. doi:10.1525/9780520920651-005. ISBN 978-0-52-092065-1.
  • Jewett, Sophie (2017). "Artisan chocolate making". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN 9781118780145.
  • Jones, Carl E (2017). "Packaging". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN 9781118780145.
  • Kamphuis, Henri J; Fowler, Mark S (2017). "Production of cocoa mass, cocoa butter and cocoa powder". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN 9781118780145.
  • Krüger, Christof (2017). "Sugar and bulk sweeteners". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN 978-1-118-78014-5.
  • Leissle, Kristy (2018). Cocoa. Polity. ISBN 9781509513208. OCLC 988580966.
  • Presilla, Maricel E. (2001). The New Taste of Chocolate: A Cultural and Natural History of Cacao with Recipes (1st ed.). California: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 1-58008-143-6.
  • Skytte, Ulla P; Kaylegian, Kerry E (2017). "Ingredients from milk". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN 9781118780145.
  • Stauffer, Marlene B (2017). "Quality control and shelf life". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN 9781118780145.
  • Talbot, Geoff (2017). "Properties of cocoa butter and vegetable fats". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN 9781118780145.
  • Thomas, Jonathan (2017). "The global chocolate confectionery market". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN 9781118780145.
  • Walker, John H (2017). "Bulk chocolate handling". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN 9781118780145.
  • Wells, Martin A (2017). "Chocolate crumb". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN 9781118780145.
  • Wohlmuth, Edward G (2017). "Recipes". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN 9781118780145.

Journal, news and newspaper articles

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