United Kingdom
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland | |
|---|---|
.svg) | |
| Anthem: "God Save the King"[a] | |
Coats of arms:.svg) Used in relation to Scotland (right) and elsewhere (left) | |
.svg)  _in_the_World_(%2BAntarctica_claims).svg)  | |
| Capital and largest city | London 51°30′N 0°7′W / 51.500°N 0.117°W |
| National language | |
| Regional and minority languages[b] | |
| Ethnic groups | |
| Religion |
|
| Demonym(s) | |
| Government | Unitary[d] parliamentary constitutional monarchy |
• Monarch | Charles III |
| Keir Starmer | |
| Legislature | Parliament |
| House of Lords | |
| House of Commons | |
| Formation | |
| 1535 and 1542 | |
| 24 March 1603 | |
| 22 July 1706 | |
| 1 May 1707 | |
| 1 January 1801 | |
| 6 December 1922 | |
| Area | |
• Total[f] | 244,376 km2 (94,354 sq mi)[12] (78th) |
• Land[e] | 242,495 km2 (93,628 sq mi) |
| Population | |
• 2023 estimate |  68,265,209[13] (21st) |
• 2021 census | 66,940,559[c][14][15][16] |
• Density | 281/km2 (727.8/sq mi)[13] (51st) |
| GDP (PPP) | 2024 estimate |
• Total |  $4.282 trillion[17] (9th) |
• Per capita | $62,573[17] (27th) |
| GDP (nominal) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $3.587 trillion[17] (6th) |
• Per capita | $52,423[17] (21st) |
| Gini (2021) |  35.4[18]medium inequality |
| HDI (2022) | 0.940[19] very high (15th) |
| Currency | Pound sterling[g] (£) (GBP) |
| Time zone | UTC+0 (GMT) |
• Summer (DST) | UTC+1 (BST[h]) |
| Date format | dd/mm/yyyy (AD)[i] |
| Drives on | left[j] |
| Calling code | +44[k] |
| ISO 3166 code | GB |
| Internet TLD | .uk[l] |
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain,[m] is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of the continental mainland.[21][22] It comprises England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.[n][23] The UK includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland, and most of the smaller islands within the British Isles, making up a total area of 94,354 square miles (244,376 km2).[f][12][24] Northern Ireland shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland; otherwise, the United Kingdom is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel, the Celtic Sea, and the Irish Sea. The United Kingdom had an estimated population of over 68.2 million people in 2023.[13] The capital and largest city of both England and the United Kingdom is London, whose wider metropolitan area is the largest in Western Europe, with a population of 14.9 million.[25] The cities of Edinburgh, Cardiff, and Belfast are the national capitals of Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, respectively.
The lands of the UK have been inhabited continuously since the Neolithic. In AD 43 the Roman conquest of Britain began; the Roman departure was followed by Anglo-Saxon settlement. In 1066, the Normans conquered England. With the end of the Wars of the Roses the English state stabilised and began to grow in power, resulting by the 16th century in the annexation of Wales, the domination of Scotland, and the establishment of the British Empire. Over the course of the 17th century, the role of the British monarchy was reduced, particularly as a result of the English Civil War. In 1707, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland united under the Treaty of Union to create the Kingdom of Great Britain. The Acts of Union 1800 incorporated the Kingdom of Ireland to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. Most of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922 as the Irish Free State, and the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927 created the present United Kingdom.
The UK became the first industrialised country and was the world's foremost power for the majority of the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly during the "Pax Britannica" between 1815 and 1914.[26][27] At its height in the 1920s, the British Empire encompassed almost a quarter of the world's landmass and population, and was the largest empire in history. However, its involvement in the First World War and the Second World War damaged Britain's economic power and a global wave of decolonisation led to the independence of most British colonies.[28][29][30]
The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy.[o][32] The UK has three distinct jurisdictions: England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland.[33] Since 1999, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have their own governments and parliaments which control various devolved matters.[34] A developed country, the UK has the world's sixth-largest economy by nominal gross domestic product (GDP). It is a nuclear state, and is ranked fifth globally in military expenditure.[35][36] The UK has been a permanent member of the UN Security Council since its first session in 1946. It is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Council of Europe, G7, OECD, NATO, Five Eyes, AUKUS and CPTPP. British influence can be observed in the legal and political systems of many of its former colonies, and British culture remains globally influential, particularly in language, literature, music and sport. English is the world's most widely spoken language and the third-most spoken native language.[37]
Etymology and terminology
The Acts of Union 1707 declared that the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland were "United into One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain".[p][38] The term "United Kingdom" has occasionally been used as a description for the former Kingdom of Great Britain, although its official name from 1707 to 1800 was simply "Great Britain".[39] The Acts of Union 1800 formed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Following the partition of Ireland and the independence of the Irish Free State in 1922, which left Northern Ireland as the only part of the island of Ireland within the United Kingdom, the name was changed in 1927 to the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland".[40]
Although the United Kingdom is a sovereign country, England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are also widely referred to as countries.[41] The UK Prime Minister's website has used the phrase "countries within a country" to describe the United Kingdom.[42] Some statistical summaries, such as those for the twelve NUTS 1 regions, refer to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland as "regions".[43] Northern Ireland is also referred to as a "province".[44] With regard to Northern Ireland, the descriptive name used "can be controversial, with the choice often revealing one's political preferences".[45]
The term "Great Britain" conventionally refers to the island of Great Britain, or politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination.[46] It is sometimes used as a loose synonym for the United Kingdom as a whole.[47] The word England is occasionally used incorrectly to refer to the United Kingdom as a whole, a mistake principally made by people from outside the UK.[48]
The term "Britain" is used as a synonym for Great Britain,[49][50] but also sometimes for the United Kingdom.[51][50] Usage is mixed: the UK Government prefers to use the term "UK" rather than "Britain" or "British" on its website (except when referring to embassies),[52] while acknowledging that both terms refer to the United Kingdom and that elsewhere "British government" is used at least as frequently as "United Kingdom government".[53] The UK Permanent Committee on Geographical Names recognises "United Kingdom", "UK" and "U.K." as shortened and abbreviated geopolitical terms for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in its toponymic guidelines; it does not list "Britain" but notes that "it is only the one specific nominal term 'Great Britain' which invariably excludes Northern Ireland".[53] The BBC historically preferred to use "Britain" as shorthand only for Great Britain, though the present style guide does not take a position except that "Great Britain" excludes Northern Ireland.[54]
The adjective "British" is commonly used to refer to matters relating to the United Kingdom and is used in law to refer to United Kingdom citizenship and nationality.[55][q] People of the United Kingdom use several different terms to describe their national identity and may identify themselves as being British, English, Scottish, Welsh, Northern Irish, or Irish;[58] or as having a combination of different national identities.[59]
History
Prior to the Treaty of Union
Settlement by Cro-Magnons of what was to become the United Kingdom occurred in waves beginning by about 30,000 years ago.[60] The island has been continuously inhabited only since the last retreat of the ice around 11,500 years ago. By the end of the region's prehistoric period, the population is thought to have belonged largely to a culture termed Insular Celtic, comprising Brittonic Britain and Gaelic Ireland.[61]
The Roman conquest, beginning in 43 AD, and the 400-year rule of southern Britain, was followed by an invasion by Germanic Anglo-Saxon settlers, reducing the Brittonic area mainly to what was to become Wales, Cornwall and, until the latter stages of the Anglo-Saxon settlement, the Hen Ogledd (northern England and parts of southern Scotland).[62] Most of the region settled by the Anglo-Saxons became unified as the Kingdom of England in the 10th century.[63] Meanwhile, Gaelic speakers in north-west Britain (with connections to the north-east of Ireland and traditionally supposed to have migrated from there in the 5th century)[64] united with the Picts to create the Kingdom of Scotland in the 9th century.[65]
In 1066, the Normans invaded England from northern France. After conquering England, they seized large parts of Wales, conquered much of Ireland and were invited to settle in Scotland, bringing to each country feudalism on the Northern French model and Norman-French culture.[66] The Anglo-Norman ruling class greatly influenced, but eventually assimilated with, the local cultures.[67] Subsequent medieval English kings completed the conquest of Wales and tried unsuccessfully to annex Scotland. Asserting its independence in the 1320 Declaration of Arbroath, Scotland maintained its independence thereafter, albeit in near-constant conflict with England.
In 1215 the Magna Carta was the first document to state that no government was above the law, that citizens have rights protecting them and that they were entitled to a fair trial.[68]
The English monarchs, through inheritance of substantial territories in France and claims to the French crown, were also heavily involved in conflicts in France, most notably the Hundred Years' War, while the Kings of Scots were in an alliance with the French during this period.[69] Early modern Britain saw religious conflict resulting from the Reformation and the introduction of Protestant state churches in each country.[70] The English Reformation ushered in political, constitutional, social and cultural change in the 16th century and established the Church of England. Moreover, it defined a national identity for England and slowly, but profoundly, changed people's religious beliefs.[71] Wales was fully incorporated into the Kingdom of England,[72] and Ireland was constituted as a kingdom in personal union with the English crown.[73] In what was to become Northern Ireland, the lands of the independent Catholic Gaelic nobility were confiscated and given to Protestant settlers from England and Scotland.[74]
In 1603, the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland were united in a personal union when James VI, King of Scots, inherited the crowns of England and Ireland and moved his court from Edinburgh to London; each country nevertheless remained a separate political entity and retained its separate political, legal, and religious institutions.[75]
In the mid-17th century, all three kingdoms were involved in a series of connected wars (including the English Civil War) which led to the temporary overthrow of the monarchy, with the execution of King Charles I, and the establishment of the short-lived unitary republic of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland.[76]
Although the monarchy was restored, the Interregnum along with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the subsequent Bill of Rights 1689 in England and Claim of Right Act 1689 in Scotland ensured that, unlike much of the rest of Europe, royal absolutism would not prevail, and a professed Catholic could never accede to the throne. The British constitution would develop on the basis of constitutional monarchy and the parliamentary system.[77] With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660, science was greatly encouraged. During this period, particularly in England, the development of naval power and the interest in voyages of discovery led to the acquisition and settlement of overseas colonies, particularly in North America and the Caribbean.[78]
Though previous attempts at uniting the two kingdoms within Great Britain in 1606, 1667, and 1689 had proved unsuccessful, the attempt initiated in 1705 led to the Treaty of Union of 1706 being agreed and ratified by both parliaments.
Union of England and Scotland
On 1 May 1707, the Kingdom of Great Britain was formed, the result of the Acts of Union 1707 between the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland.[79] In the 18th century, cabinet government developed under Robert Walpole, in practice the first prime minister (1721–1742). A series of Jacobite uprisings sought to remove the Protestant House of Hanover from the throne and restore the Catholic House of Stuart. The Jacobites were finally defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746, after which the Scottish Highlanders were forcibly assimilated into Scotland by revoking the feudal independence of clan chiefs. The British colonies in North America that broke away in the American War of Independence became the United States. British imperial ambition turned towards Asia, particularly to India.[80]
British merchants played a leading part in the Atlantic slave trade, mainly between 1662 and 1807 when British or British-colonial slave ships transported nearly 3.3 million slaves from Africa.[81] The slaves were taken to work on plantations, principally in the Caribbean but also North America.[82] However, with pressure from the abolitionism movement, Parliament banned the trade in 1807, banned slavery in the British Empire in 1833, and Britain took a leading role in the movement to abolish slavery worldwide through the blockade of Africa and pressing other nations to end their trade with a series of treaties.[83]
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
In 1800 the parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland each passed an Act of Union, uniting the two kingdoms and creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 1 January 1801.[84]
After the defeat of France at the end of the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815), the United Kingdom emerged as the principal naval and imperial power (with London the largest city in the world from about 1830).[85] Unchallenged at sea, British dominance was later described as Pax Britannica ("British Peace"), a period of relative peace among the great powers (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon and adopted the role of global policeman.[86][87] From 1853 to 1856, Britain took part in the Crimean War, allied with the Ottoman Empire against Tsarist Russia,[88] participating in the naval battles of the Baltic Sea known as the Åland War in the Gulf of Bothnia and the Gulf of Finland, among others.[89] Following the Indian Rebellion in 1857, the British government led by Lord Palmerston assumed direct rule over India. Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, British dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of regions such as East Asia and Latin America.[90]
Throughout the Victorian era, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies. Beginning with the Great Reform Act in 1832, Parliament gradually widened the voting franchise, with the 1884 Reform Act championed by William Gladstone granting suffrage to a majority of males for the first time. The British population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, causing significant social and economic stresses.[91] By the late 19th century, the Conservatives under Benjamin Disraeli and Lord Salisbury initiated a period of imperial expansion in Africa, maintained a policy of splendid isolation in Europe, and attempted to contain Russian influence in Afghanistan and Persia, in what came to be known as the Great Game.[92] During this time, Canada, Australia and New Zealand were granted self-governing dominion status.[93] At the turn of the century, Britain's industrial dominance became challenged by the German Empire and the United States.[94] The Edwardian era saw social reform and home rule for Ireland become important domestic issues, while the Labour Party emerged from an alliance of trade unions and small socialist groups in 1900, and suffragettes campaigned for women's right to vote.[95]
World wars and partition of Ireland
Britain was one of the principal Allies that defeated the Central Powers in the First World War (1914–1918). Alongside their French, Russian and (after 1917) American counterparts,[96] British armed forces were engaged across much of the British Empire and in several regions of Europe, particularly on the Western Front.[97] The high fatalities of trench warfare caused the loss of much of a generation of men, with lasting social effects in the nation and a great disruption in the social order. Britain had suffered 2.5 million casualties and finished the war with a huge national debt.[97] The consequences of the war persuaded the government to expand the right to vote in national and local elections to all adult men and most adult women with the Representation of the People Act 1918.[97] After the war, Britain became a permanent member of the Executive Council of the League of Nations and received a mandate over a number of former German and Ottoman colonies. Under the leadership of David Lloyd George, the British Empire reached its greatest extent, covering a fifth of the world's land surface and a quarter of its population.[98]
By the mid-1920s, most of the British population could listen to BBC radio programmes.[99][100] Experimental television broadcasts began in 1929 and the first scheduled BBC Television Service commenced in 1936.[101] The rise of Irish nationalism, and disputes within Ireland over the terms of Irish Home Rule, led eventually to the partition of the island in 1921.[102] A period of conflict in what is now Northern Ireland occurred from June 1920 until June 1922. The Irish Free State became independent, initially with Dominion status in 1922, and unambiguously independent in 1931. Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom.[103] The 1928 Equal Franchise Act gave women electoral equality with men in national elections. Strikes in the mid-1920s culminated in the General Strike of 1926. Britain had still not recovered from the effects of the First World War when the Great Depression (1929–1932) led to considerable unemployment and hardship in the old industrial areas, as well as political and social unrest with rising membership in communist and socialist parties. A coalition government was formed in 1931.[104]
Nonetheless, "Britain was a very wealthy country, formidable in arms, ruthless in pursuit of its interests and sitting at the heart of a global production system."[105] After Nazi Germany invaded Poland in 1939, Britain entered the Second World War. Winston Churchill became prime minister and head of a coalition government in 1940. Despite the defeat of its European allies in the first year, Britain and its Empire continued the war against Germany. Churchill engaged industry, scientists and engineers to support the government and the military in the prosecution of the war effort.[105]
In 1940, the Royal Air Force defeated the German Luftwaffe in the Battle of Britain. Urban areas suffered heavy bombing during the Blitz. The Grand Alliance of Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union formed in 1941, leading the Allies against the Axis powers. There were eventual hard-fought victories in the Battle of the Atlantic, the North Africa campaign and the Italian campaign. British forces played important roles in the Normandy landings of 1944 and the liberation of Europe. The British Army led the Burma campaign against Japan, and the British Pacific Fleet fought Japan at sea. British scientists contributed to the Manhattan Project whose task was to build an atomic weapon.[106] Once built, it was decided, with British consent, to use the weapon against Japan.[107]
Postwar 20th century
The UK was one of the Big Three powers (along with the US and the Soviet Union) who met to plan the post-war world;[108] it drafted the Declaration by United Nations with the United States and became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. It worked closely with the United States to establish the IMF, World Bank and NATO.[109] The war left the UK severely weakened and financially dependent on the Marshall Plan,[110] but it was spared the total war that devastated eastern Europe.[111]
In the immediate post-war years, the Labour government under Clement Attlee initiated a radical programme of reforms, which significantly impacted British society in the following decades.[112] Major industries and public utilities were nationalised, a welfare state was established, and a comprehensive, publicly funded healthcare system, the National Health Service, was created.[113] The rise of nationalism in the colonies coincided with Britain's much-diminished economic position, so that a policy of decolonisation was unavoidable. Independence was granted to India and Pakistan in 1947.[114] Over the next three decades, most colonies of the British Empire gained their independence, and many became members of the Commonwealth of Nations.[115]
The UK was the third country to develop a nuclear weapons arsenal (with its first atomic bomb test, Operation Hurricane, in 1952), but the post-war limits of Britain's international role were illustrated by the Suez Crisis of 1956. The international spread of the English language ensured the continuing international influence of its literature and culture.[116][117] As a result of a shortage of workers in the 1950s, the government encouraged immigration from Commonwealth countries. In the following decades, the UK became a more multi-ethnic society.[118] Despite rising living standards in the late 1950s and 1960s, the UK's economic performance was less successful than many of its main competitors such as France, West Germany and Japan. The UK was the first democratic nation to lower its voting age to 18 in 1969.[119]
In the decades-long process of European integration, the UK was a founding member of the Western European Union, established with the London and Paris Conferences in 1954. In 1960 the UK was one of the seven founding members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), but in 1973 it left to join the European Communities (EC). In a 1975 referendum 67% voted to stay in it.[120] When the EC became the European Union (EU) in 1992, the UK was one of the 12 founding member states.
From the late 1960s, Northern Ireland suffered communal and paramilitary violence (sometimes affecting other parts of the UK) conventionally known as the Troubles. It is usually considered to have ended with the 1998 Belfast "Good Friday" Agreement.[121] Following a period of widespread economic slowdown and industrial strife in the 1970s, the Conservative government of the 1980s led by Margaret Thatcher initiated a radical policy of monetarism, deregulation, particularly of the financial sector (for example, the Big Bang in 1986) and labour markets, the sale of state-owned companies (privatisation), and the withdrawal of subsidies to others.[122]
In 1982, Argentina invaded the British territories of South Georgia and the Falkland Islands, leading to the 10-week Falklands War in which Argentine forces were defeated. The inhabitants of the islands are predominantly descendants of British settlers, and strongly favour British sovereignty, expressed in a 2013 referendum. From 1984, the UK economy was helped by the inflow of substantial North Sea oil revenues.[123] Another British overseas territory, Gibraltar, ceded to Great Britain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht,[124] is a key military base. A referendum in 2002 on shared sovereignty with Spain was rejected by 98.97% of voters in the territory.
Around the end of the 20th century, there were major changes to the governance of the UK with the establishment of devolved administrations for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.[125] The statutory incorporation followed acceptance of the European Convention on Human Rights. The UK remained a great power with global diplomatic and military influence and a leading role in the United Nations and NATO.[126]
21st century
The UK broadly supported the United States' approach to the "war on terror" in the early 21st century.[127] British troops fought in the War in Afghanistan, but controversy surrounded Britain's military deployment in Iraq, which saw the largest protest in British history in opposition to the government led by Tony Blair.[128]
The Great Recession severely affected the UK economy.[129] The Cameron–Clegg coalition government of 2010 introduced austerity measures intended to tackle the substantial public deficits.[130] Studies have suggested that policy led to significant social disruption and suffering.[131][132] A referendum on Scottish independence in 2014 resulted in the Scottish electorate voting by 55.3 to 44.7% to remain part of the United Kingdom.[133]
In 2016, 51.9 per cent of voters in the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union.[134] The UK left the EU in 2020.[135] On 1 May 2021, the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement came into force.[136]
The COVID-19 pandemic had a severe impact on the UK's economy, caused major disruptions to education and had far-reaching impacts on society and politics in 2020 and 2021.[137][138][139] The United Kingdom was the first country in the world to use an approved COVID-19 vaccine, developing its own vaccine through a collaboration between Oxford University and AstraZeneca, which allowed the UK's vaccine rollout to be among the fastest in the world.[140][141]
Geography
.jpg)
The total area of the United Kingdom is approximately 94,354 square miles (244,376 km2),[f][12] with a land area of 93,723 square miles (242,741 km2).[12] The country occupies the major part of the British Isles[142] archipelago and includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern one-sixth of the island of Ireland and some smaller surrounding islands. It lies between the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea with the southeast coast coming within 22 miles (35 km) of the coast of northern France, from which it is separated by the English Channel.[143]
The Royal Greenwich Observatory in London was chosen as the defining point of the Prime Meridian[144] at the International Meridian Conference in 1884.[145]
The United Kingdom lies between latitudes 49° and 61° N, and longitudes 9° W and 2° E. Northern Ireland shares a 224-mile (360 km) land boundary with the Republic of Ireland.[143] The coastline of Great Britain is 11,073 miles (17,820 km) long,[146] though measurements can vary greatly due to the coastline paradox.[147] It is connected to continental Europe by the Channel Tunnel, which at 31 miles (50 km) (24 miles (38 km) underwater) is the longest underwater tunnel in the world.[148]
The UK contains four terrestrial ecoregions: Celtic broadleaf forests, English Lowlands beech forests, North Atlantic moist mixed forests, and Caledonian conifer forests.[149] The area of woodland in the UK in 2023 is estimated to be 3.25 million hectares, which represents 13% of the total land area in the UK.[150]
Climate
Most of the United Kingdom has a temperate climate, with generally cool temperatures and plentiful rainfall all year round.[143] The temperature varies with the seasons seldom dropping below 0 °C (32 °F) or rising above 30 °C (86 °F).[151] Some parts, away from the coast, of upland England, Wales, Northern Ireland and most of Scotland, experience a subpolar oceanic climate. Higher elevations in Scotland experience a continental subarctic climate and the mountains experience a tundra climate.[152]
The prevailing wind is from the southwest and bears frequent spells of mild and wet weather from the Atlantic Ocean,[143] although the eastern parts are mostly sheltered from this wind. Since the majority of the rain falls over the western regions, the eastern parts are the driest. Atlantic currents, warmed by the Gulf Stream, bring mild winters, especially in the west where winters are wet and even more so over high ground. Summers are warmest in the southeast of England and coolest in the north. Heavy snowfall can occur in winter and early spring on high ground, and occasionally settles to great depth away from the hills.[153]
The average total annual sunshine in the United Kingdom is 1339.7 hours, which is just under 30% of the maximum possible.[154] The hours of sunshine vary from 1200 to about 1580 hours per year, and since 1996 the UK has been and still is receiving above the 1981 to 2010 average hours of sunshine.[155]
Climate change has a serious impact on the country. A third of food price rise in 2023 is attributed to climate change.[156] As of 2022, the United Kingdom is ranked 2nd out of 180 countries in the Environmental Performance Index.[157] A law has been passed that UK greenhouse gas emissions will be net zero by 2050.[158]
Topography
England accounts for 53 per cent of the UK, covering 50,350 square miles (130,395 km2).[159] Most of the country consists of lowland terrain,[160] with upland and mountainous terrain northwest of the Tees–Exe line which roughly divides the UK into lowland and upland areas. Lowland areas include Cornwall, the New Forest, the South Downs and the Norfolk Broads. Upland areas include the Lake District, the Pennines, the Yorkshire Dales, Exmoor, and Dartmoor. The main rivers and estuaries are the Thames, Severn, and the Humber. England's highest mountain is Scafell Pike, at 978 metres (3,209 ft) in the Lake District; its largest island is the Isle of Wight.
Scotland accounts for 32 per cent of the UK, covering 30,410 square miles (78,772 km2).[161] This includes nearly 800 islands,[162] notably the Hebrides, Orkney Islands and Shetland Islands. Scotland is the most mountainous constituent country of the UK, the Highlands to the north and west are the more rugged region containing the majority of Scotland's mountainous land, including the Cairngorms, Loch Lomond and The Trossachs and Ben Nevis which at 1,345 metres (4,413 ft)[163] is the highest point in the British Isles.[164] Wales accounts for less than 9 per cent of the UK, covering 8,020 square miles (20,779 km2).[165] Wales is mostly mountainous, though South Wales is less mountainous than North and mid Wales. The highest mountains in Wales are in Snowdonia and include Snowdon (Welsh: Yr Wyddfa) which, at 1,085 metres (3,560 ft), is the highest peak in Wales.[160] Wales has over 1,680 miles (2,704 kilometres) of coastline including the Pembrokeshire Coast.[146] Several islands lie off the Welsh mainland, the largest of which is Anglesey (Ynys Môn).
Northern Ireland, separated from Great Britain by the Irish Sea and North Channel, has an area of 5,470 square miles (14,160 km2) and is mostly hilly. It includes Lough Neagh which, at 150 square miles (388 km2), is the largest lake in the British Isles by area,[166] Lough Erne which has over 150 islands and the Giant's Causeway which is a World Heritage Site. The highest peak in Northern Ireland is Slieve Donard in the Mourne Mountains at 852 metres (2,795 ft).[160]
Politics
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
The UK is a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary democracy operating under the Westminster system, otherwise known as a "democratic parliamentary monarchy".[167] It is a centralised, unitary state[168][169] wherein the Parliament of the United Kingdom is sovereign.[170] Parliament is made up of the elected House of Commons, the appointed House of Lords and the Crown (as personified by the monarch).[r][173] The main business of parliament takes place in the two houses,[173] but royal assent is required for a bill to become an act of parliament (that is, statute law).[174] As a result of parliamentary sovereignty, the British constitution is uncodified, consisting mostly of disparate written sources, including parliamentary statutes, judge-made case law and international treaties, together with constitutional conventions.[175] Nevertheless, the Supreme Court recognises a number of principles underlying the British constitution, such as parliamentary sovereignty, the rule of law, democracy, and upholding international law.[176]
King Charles III is the current monarch and head of state of the UK and of 14 other independent countries. These 15 countries are today referred to as "Commonwealth realms". The monarch is formally vested with all executive authority as the personal embodiment of the Crown and is "fundamental to the law and working of government in the UK."[177] The disposition of such powers however, including those belonging to the royal prerogative, is generally exercised only on the advice of ministers of the Crown responsible to Parliament and thence to the electorate. Nevertheless, in the performance of official duties, the monarch has "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn".[178] In addition, the monarch has a number of reserve powers at his disposal, albeit rarely used, to uphold responsible government and prevent constitutional crises.[s]
For general elections (elections to the House of Commons), the UK is currently divided into 650 constituencies, each of which is represented by one member of Parliament (MP) elected by the first-past-the-post system.[180] MPs hold office for up to five years and must then stand for re-election if they wish to continue to be an MP.[180] The Conservative Party, colloquially known as the Tory Party or the Tories, and the Labour Party have been the dominant political parties in the UK since the 1920s, leading to the UK being described as a two-party system. However, since the 1920s other political parties have won seats in the House of Commons, although never more than the Conservatives or Labour.[181]
The prime minister is the head of government in the UK.[182] Acting under the direction and supervision of a Cabinet of senior ministers selected and led by the prime minister, the Government serves as the principal instrument for public policymaking, administers public services and, through the Privy Council, promulgates statutory instruments and tenders advice to the monarch.[183][184][185] Nearly all prime ministers have served concurrently as First Lord of the Treasury[186] and all prime ministers have continuously served as First Lord of the Treasury since 1905,[187] Minister for the Civil Service since 1968,[188] and Minister for the Union since 2019.[189] While appointed by the monarch, in modern times the prime minister is, by convention, an MP, the leader of the political party with the most seats in the House of Commons, and holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the House of Commons.[190][191][192] The current Prime Minister, as of July 2024, is Sir Keir Starmer, leader of the Labour Party.
Although not part of the United Kingdom, the three Crown Dependencies of Jersey, Guernsey and Isle of Man and 14 British Overseas Territories across the globe are subject to the sovereignty of the British Crown. The Crown exercises its responsibilities in relation to the Crown Dependencies mainly through the British government's Home Office and for the British Overseas Territories principally through the Foreign Office.[193]
Administrative divisions
The geographical division of the United Kingdom into counties or shires began in England and Scotland in the early Middle Ages, and was completed throughout Great Britain and Ireland by the early Modern Period.[194] Modern local government by elected councils, partly based on the ancient counties, was established by separate Acts of Parliament: in England and Wales in 1888, Scotland in 1889 and Ireland in 1898, meaning there is no consistent system of administrative or geographic demarcation across the UK.[195] Until the 19th century there was little change to those arrangements, but there has since been a constant evolution of role and function.[196]
Local government in England is complex, with the distribution of functions varying according to local arrangements. The upper-tier subdivisions of England are the nine regions, now used primarily for statistical purposes.[197] One of the regions, Greater London, has had a directly elected assembly and mayor since 2000 following popular support for the proposal in a 1998 referendum.[198]
Local government in Scotland is divided into 32 council areas with a wide variation in size and population. The cities of Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Dundee are separate council areas, as is the Highland Council, which includes a third of Scotland's area but only just over 200,000 people. Local councils are made up of elected councillors, of whom there are 1,223.[199]
Local government in Wales consists of 22 unitary authorities, each led by a leader and cabinet elected by the council itself. These include the cities of Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, which are unitary authorities in their own right.[200] Elections are held every four years under the first-past-the-post system.[200]
Local government in Northern Ireland since 1973, has been organised into 26 district councils, each elected by single transferable vote. Their powers are limited to services such as waste collection, dog control, and maintaining parks and cemeteries.[201] In 2008 the executive agreed on proposals to create 11 new councils and replace the present system.[202]
Devolution
In the United Kingdom a process of devolution has transferred various powers from the UK Government to three of the four UK countries - Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales, as well as to the regions of England. These powers vary and have been moved to the Scottish Government, the Welsh Government, the Northern Ireland Executive and in England, the Greater London Authority, Combined Authorities and Combined County Authorities.[203]
The UK has an uncodified constitution and constitutional matters are not among the powers that have been devolved. Under the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty, the UK Parliament could, in theory, therefore, abolish the Scottish Parliament, Senedd or Northern Ireland Assembly.[204] Though in the Scotland Act 2016 and the Wales Act 2017 it states that the Scottish Government and the Welsh Government "are a permanent part of the United Kingdom's constitutional arrangements".[205][206]
In practice, it would be politically difficult for the UK Parliament to abolish devolution to the Scottish Parliament and the Senedd, because these institutions were created by referendum decisions.[207] The political constraints placed upon the UK Parliament's power to interfere with devolution in Northern Ireland are greater still, because devolution in Northern Ireland rests upon an international agreement with the Government of Ireland.[208] The UK Parliament restricts the three devolved parliaments' legislative powers in economic policy matters through an act passed in 2020.[209]
England
Unlike Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales, England does not have a separate devolved government or national parliament,[210] rather a process of devolution of powers from the central government to local authorities has taken place, first in 1998.[211] The Greater London Authority (GLA) was set up following a referendum in 1998. Colloquially known as City Hall, it is the devolved regional government body for Greater London. It consists of two political branches: an Executive Mayor and the London Assembly, which serves as a check and balance on the Mayor.
A Combined Authority (CA) is a type of local government institution introduced in England outside Greater London by the Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009. CAs allow a group of local authorities to pool appropriate responsibility and receive certain devolved functions from central government in order to deliver transport and economic policy more effectively over a wider area.[212]
A Combined County Authority (CCA) is a similar type of local-government institution introduced in England outside Greater London by the Levelling-up and Regeneration Act 2023, but may only be formed by upper-tier authorities: county councils and unitary authorities.[213]
Scotland
.jpg)
Since 1999, Scotland has had a devolved national government and parliament with wide-ranging powers over any matter that has not been specifically reserved to the UK Parliament.[214][215] Their power over economic issues is significantly constrained by an act of the UK parliament passed in 2020.[209]
The current Scottish Government is a Scottish National Party minority government,[223] led by First Minister John Swinney, leader of the Scottish National Party. In 2014, the Scottish independence referendum was held, with 55.3% voting against independence from the United Kingdom and 44.7% voting in favour, resulting in Scotland staying within the United Kingdom. Local government in Scotland is divided into 32 council areas with a wide variation in size and population. Local councils are made up of elected councillors, of whom there are 1,223.[199]
The Scottish Parliament is separate from the Scottish Government. It is made up of 129 elected Members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs). It is the law-making body of Scotland, and thus it scrutinises the work of the incumbent Scottish Government and considers any piece of proposed legislation through parliamentary debates, committees and parliamentary questions.[224]
Wales
Since 1999, Wales has a devolved national government and legislature, known as the Senedd. Elections to the Senedd use the additional member system. It has more limited powers than those devolved to Scotland.[225] The Senedd can legislate on any matter not specifically reserved to the UK Parliament by Acts of Senedd Cymru. The current Welsh Government is Labour, led by First Minister Eluned Morgan, who has been the First Minister since 2024. Local government in Wales consists of 22 unitary authorities, each led by a leader and cabinet elected by the council itself.
Northern Ireland
The devolved form of government in Northern Ireland is based on the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, which brought to an end a 30-year period of unionist-nationalist communal conflict known as The Troubles. The Agreement was confirmed by referendum and implemented later that year. It established power sharing arrangements for a devolved government and legislature, referred to as the Executive and Assembly respectively.[226] Elections to the Assembly use the single transferable vote system. The Executive and Assembly have powers similar to those devolved to Scotland.[227] The Executive is led by a diarchy representing unionist and nationalist members of the Assembly.[228] The First Minister and deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland are the joint heads of government of Northern Ireland.[229][230] Local government in Northern Ireland since 2015 has been divided between 11 councils with limited responsibilities.[201]
Foreign relations
.jpg)
The UK is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, a member of NATO, AUKUS, the Commonwealth of Nations, the G7 finance ministers, the G7 forum, the G20, the OECD, the WTO, the Council of Europe and the OSCE.[231] The UK has the British Council which is a British organisation based in over 100 countries specialising in international cultural and educational opportunities. The UK is said to have a "Special Relationship" with the United States and a close partnership with France – the "Entente cordiale" – and shares nuclear weapons technology with both countries;[232][233] the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance is considered to be the oldest binding military alliance in the world. The UK is also closely linked with the Republic of Ireland; the two countries share a Common Travel Area and co-operate through the British-Irish Intergovernmental Conference and the British-Irish Council. Britain's global presence and influence is further amplified through its trading relations, foreign investments, official development assistance and military engagements.[234] Canada, Australia and New Zealand, all of which are former colonies of the British Empire which share King Charles as their head of state, are the most favourably viewed countries in the world by British people.[235]
Law and criminal justice
.jpg)
The United Kingdom does not have a single legal system as Article 19 of the 1706 Treaty of Union provided for the continuation of Scotland's separate legal system.[236] Today the UK has three distinct systems of law: English law, Northern Ireland law and Scots law. A new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom came into being in October 2009 to replace the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords.[237] The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, including the same members as the Supreme Court, is the highest court of appeal for several independent Commonwealth countries, the British Overseas Territories and the Crown Dependencies.[238]
Both English law, which applies in England and Wales, and Northern Ireland law are based on common law (or case law) principles.[239] It originated in England in the Middle Ages and is the basis for many legal systems around the world.[240] The courts of England and Wales are headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice (for civil cases) and the Crown Court (for criminal cases).[241] Scots law is a hybrid system based on common-law and civil-law principles. The chief courts are the Court of Session, for civil cases,[242] and the High Court of Justiciary, for criminal cases.[243] The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom serves as the highest court of appeal for civil cases under Scots law.[244]
Crime in England and Wales increased in the period between 1981 and 1995, though since that peak there has been an overall fall of 66 per cent in recorded crime from 1995 to 2015,[245] according to crime statistics. As of June 2023, the United Kingdom has the highest per-capita incarceration rate in Western Europe.[246][247][248]
UK labour laws entitle staff to have a minimum set of employment rights including a minimum wage, a minimum of 28 days annual holiday, parental leave, statutory sick pay and a pension. Same-sex marriage has been legal in England, Scotland, and Wales since 2014, and in Northern Ireland since 2020.[249] LGBT equality in the United Kingdom is considered advanced by modern standards.[250][251]
Military
.jpg)
The British Armed Forces consist of three professional service branches: the Royal Navy and Royal Marines (forming the Naval Service), the British Army and the Royal Air Force.[252] The armed forces of the United Kingdom are managed by the Ministry of Defence and controlled by the Defence Council, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The Commander-in-Chief is the British monarch, to whom members of the forces swear an oath of allegiance.[253] The Armed Forces are charged with protecting the UK and its overseas territories, promoting the UK's global security interests and supporting international peacekeeping efforts. They are active and regular participants in NATO (including the Allied Rapid Reaction Corps), the Five Power Defence Arrangements, RIMPAC and other worldwide coalition operations. Overseas garrisons and facilities are maintained in Ascension Island, Bahrain, Belize, Brunei, Canada, Cyprus, Diego Garcia, the Falkland Islands, Germany, Gibraltar, Kenya, Oman, Qatar and Singapore.[254]
The UK is the 34th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 Global Peace Index.[255]
According to sources which include the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute and the International Institute for Strategic Studies, the UK has the fourth- or fifth-highest military expenditure. Total defence spending in 2024 is estimated at 2.3% of GDP.[256] Following the end of the Cold War, defence policy has a stated assumption that "the most demanding operations" will be undertaken as part of a coalition.[257]
Economy
.jpeg)
The UK has a regulated social market economy.[260][261][262] Based on market exchange rates, the UK is the sixth-largest economy in the world and the second-largest in Europe by nominal GDP. Its currency, the pound sterling, is the fourth most-traded currency in the foreign exchange market and the world's fourth-largest reserve currency (after the United States dollar, euro, and yen).[263] Sterling was the 2nd best-performing G10 currency against the dollar in 2023 with a gain of about 5%, with only the Swiss franc performing better.[264][265] London is the world capital for foreign exchange trading, with a market share of 38.1% in 2022[266] of the daily $7.5 trillion global turnover.[267]
HM Treasury, led by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, is responsible for developing and executing the government's public finance policy and economic policy. The Department for Business and Trade is responsible for business, international trade, and enterprise. The Bank of England is the UK's central bank and is responsible for issuing notes and coins in the pound sterling. Banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland retain the right to issue their own notes, subject to retaining enough Bank of England notes in reserve to cover their issue. In 2022, the UK became the world's fourth-largest exporter behind only China, the US, and Germany.[268] The estimated nominal GDP of the UK for 2024 is £2.765 trillion.[269] This value is 23% higher than the 2019 figure of £2.255 trillion[270] before leaving the EU (at similar US and EU exchange rates to 2019).[271][t] Inflation in the UK rose by 2% in the year to May 2024 which was the governments target.[273][274]
The service sector made up around 80% of the UK's GVA in 2021.[275] As of 2022, the UK is the world's second-largest exporter of services.[276] London is one of the world's largest financial centres, ranking second in the world in the Global Financial Centres Index in 2022. London also has the largest city GDP in Europe.[277] Edinburgh ranks 17th in the world, and sixth in Western Europe in the Global Financial Centres Index in 2020.[278]
The country's tourism sector is very important to the British economy; London was named as Europe's most popular destination for 2022.[279][280] The creative industries accounted for 5.9% of the UK's GVA in 2019, having grown by 43.6% in real terms from 2010.[281] Creative industries contributed more than £111bn to the UK economy in 2018, growth in the sector is more than five times larger than growth across the UK economy as a whole as reported in 2018.[282] Lloyd's of London is the world's largest insurance and reinsurance market and is located in London.[283] WPP plc, the world's biggest advertising company, is also based in the UK. The UK is one of the leading retail markets in Europe and is home to Europe's largest e-commerce market.[284] With consumption expenditures of over $2 trillion in 2023, the UK has the second-largest consumer market in Europe.[285] John Lewis is the UK's largest employee-owned business.[286]
.jpg)
The British automotive industry employs around 800,000 people, with a turnover in 2022 of £67 billion, generating £27 billion of exports (10% of the UK's total export of goods).[287] In 2023, the UK produced around 905,100 passenger vehicles and 120,400 commercial vehicles, output was up 17.0% on the previous year.[288] Britain is known for iconic cars such as Mini and Jaguar,[289] also other luxury cars such as Rolls-Royce, Bentley and Range Rover. The UK is a major centre for engine manufacturing: in 2022 around 1.5 million engines were produced.[287] It is also the world's fourth-largest exporter of engines, as of 2021.[290] The UK motorsport industry employs more than 40,000 people, comprises around 4,300 companies and has an annual turnover of around £10 billion.[291] 7 of the 10 Formula One teams are based in the UK, with their technology being used in supercars and hypercars from McLaren, Aston Martin and Lotus.[u]
The aerospace industry of the UK is the second-largest national aerospace industry in the world depending upon the method of measurement[clarification needed] and has an annual turnover of around £30 billion.[292] The UK space industry was worth £17.5bn in 2020/21 and employed 48,800 people. Since 2012, the number of space organisations has grown on average nearly 21% per year, with 1,293 organisations reported in 2021.[293][294] The UK Space Agency has stated in 2023 that it is investing £1.6 billion in space-related projects.[295]
Its agriculture industry is intensive, highly mechanised and efficient by European standards, producing approximately 60% of the country's overall food requirements and 73% of its indigenous food needs, utilising around 0.9 per cent of the labour force (292,000 workers).[296] Around two-thirds of production is devoted to livestock, one-third to arable crops. The UK retains a significant, though much reduced fishing industry. It is also rich in a variety of natural resources including coal, petroleum, natural gas, tin, limestone, iron ore, salt, clay, chalk, gypsum, lead, silica and an abundance of arable land.[297] The UK has among the highest levels of income inequality in the OECD, but has a very high HDI ranking.[298][299]
Science and technology
England and Scotland were leading centres of the Scientific Revolution from the 17th century.[301] The United Kingdom led the Industrial Revolution from the 18th century, and has continued to produce scientists and engineers credited with important advances.[302] Major theorists from the 17th and 18th centuries include Isaac Newton, whose laws of motion and illumination of gravity have been seen as a keystone of modern science;[303] from the 19th century Charles Darwin, whose theory of evolution by natural selection was fundamental to the development of modern biology, and James Clerk Maxwell, who formulated classical electromagnetic theory; and more recently Stephen Hawking, who advanced major theories in the fields of cosmology, quantum gravity and the investigation of black holes.[304]
The Department for Science, Innovation and Technology (DSIT) is responsible for helping to encourage, develop and manage the UK's scientific, research, and technological outputs. Scientific research and development remains important in British universities, with many establishing science parks to facilitate production and co-operation with industry.[305] In 2022 the UK retained its number one spot for technology in Europe reaching a combined market value of $1 trillion. Cambridge was named the number one university in the world for producing successful technology founders.[306]
In 2024 the UK is in the 5th place ranking in the Global Innovation Index, a position determined by approximately 80 indicators encompassing the political environment, education, infrastructure, and knowledge creation, among others.[307][300] During 2022, the UK produced 6.3 per cent of the world's scientific research papers and had a 10.5 per cent share of scientific citations, the third highest in the world for both. The UK ranked 1st in the world for Field-Weighted Citation Impact.[308] Scientific journals produced in the UK include publications by the Royal Society, Nature, the British Medical Journal and The Lancet.[309]
Transport
A radial road network totals 29,145 miles (46,904 km) of main roads, 2,173 miles (3,497 km) of motorways and 213,750 miles (344,000 km) of paved roads.[143] The M25, encircling London, is the largest and busiest bypass in the world.[310] In 2022, there were a total of 40.8 million licensed vehicles in Great Britain.[311]
The UK has an extensive railway network of 10,072 miles (16,209 km). In Great Britain, the British Rail network was privatised between 1994 and 1997, followed by a rapid rise in passenger numbers. Great British Railways is a planned state-owned public body that will oversee rail transport in Great Britain. The UK was ranked eighth among national European rail systems in the 2017 European Railway Performance Index assessing intensity of use, quality of service and safety.[312]
The UK has a direct train between London and Paris which takes 2hrs 16mins[313] called the Eurostar, it travels through the Channel Tunnel under the English Channel, at 23.5 miles long it is the world's longest undersea tunnel.[314] There is also a car service through the tunnel to France called LeShuttle. The Elizabeth line, a rail link running between East and West London, was named in honour of Queen Elizabeth II in 2016 and opened in 2022. It was Europe's largest construction project at the time and is estimated to bring in £42 billion to the UK economy.[315][316] Another major infrastructure project is High Speed 2 (HS2), a new high speed railway currently under construction. It will link London with Birmingham, with the potential to extend further north and capable of speeds of up to 225 mph.[317][318]
In 2014, there were 5.2 billion bus journeys in the UK, 2.4 billion of which were in London.[319] The red double-decker bus has entered popular culture as an internationally recognised icon of England.[320] The London bus network is extensive, with over 6,800 scheduled services every weekday carrying about six million passengers on over 700 different routes making it one of the most extensive bus systems in the world and the largest in Europe.[321]
During 2023, UK airports handled a total of 272.8 million passengers.[322] In that period the three largest airports were London Heathrow Airport (79.1 million passengers), Gatwick Airport (40.9 million passengers) and Manchester Airport (28.1 million passengers).[322] London Heathrow Airport, located 15 miles (24 km) west of the capital, is the world's second busiest airport by international passenger traffic and has the most international passenger traffic of any airport in the world;[323] it is the hub for the UK flag carrier British Airways, as well as Virgin Atlantic.[324]
Energy
In 2021, the UK was the world's 14th-largest consumer of energy and the 22nd-largest producer.[325] The UK is home to many large energy companies, including two of the six major oil and gas companies – BP and Shell.[326]
The total of all renewable electricity sources provided 43% of the electricity generated in the UK in 2020.[327] Wind power production is the country's fastest-growing supply; in 2022, 26.8% of the UK's total electricity was generated by wind power.[328] The UK has the largest offshore wind farm in the world, which is located off the coast of Yorkshire.[329]
In 2023, the UK had 9 nuclear reactors normally generating about 15 per cent of the UK's electricity.[330] Unlike Germany and Japan, there are two reactors under construction and more planned.[331][332] In the late 1990s, nuclear power plants contributed around 25 per cent of the total annual electricity generation in the UK, but this has gradually declined as old plants have been shut down. The UK Government is investing in Small Modular Reactors, Advanced Modular Reactors and Nuclear Fusion Reators[333] research and development.
In 2021, the UK produced 935 thousand barrels per day (bbl/d) of oil (and other liquids) and consumed 1,258 thousand bbl/d.[325] Production is now[when?] in decline and the UK has been a net importer of oil since 2005.[334] In 2020[update], the UK had around 2 billion barrels of proven crude oil reserves.[334]
In 2021, the UK was the 21st-largest producer of natural gas in the world.[335] Production is now[when?] in decline and the UK has been a net importer of natural gas since 2004.[335] In 2020, the UK produced 1.8 million tonnes of coal falling 91% in 10 years.[330] In 2020 it had proven recoverable coal reserves of 26 million tonnes.[330] The UK Coal Authority has stated that there is a potential to produce between 7 billion tonnes and 16 billion tonnes of coal through underground coal gasification or 'fracking',[336] and based on current UK coal consumption, such reserves could last between 200 and 400 years.[337]
Water supply and sanitation
Access to improved water supply and sanitation in the UK is universal. It is estimated that 96 per cent of households are connected to the sewer network.[338] According to the Environment Agency, total water abstraction for public water supply in the UK was 16,406 megalitres per day in 2007.[339]
In England and Wales water and sewerage services are provided by 10 private regional water and sewerage companies and 13 mostly smaller private "water only" companies. In Scotland, water and sewerage services are provided by a single public company, Scottish Water. In Northern Ireland water and sewerage services are also provided by a single public entity, Northern Ireland Water.[340]
Demographics
In the 2011 census the total population of the United Kingdom was 63,181,775.[341] It is the fourth-largest in Europe (after Russia, Germany and France), the fifth-largest in the Commonwealth and the 22nd-largest in the world. In mid-2014 and mid-2015 net long-term international migration contributed more to population growth. In mid-2012 and mid-2013 natural change contributed the most to population growth.[342] Between 2001 and 2011 the population increased by an average annual rate of approximately 0.7 per cent.[341] The 2011 census also showed that, over the previous 100 years, the proportion of the population aged 0–14 fell from 31 per cent to 18 per cent, and the proportion of people aged 65 and over rose from 5 to 16 per cent.[341] In 2018 the median age of the UK population was 41.7 years.[343]
| Country | Land area | Population | Density (/km2) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (km2) | (%) | People | (%) | ||
| England | 130,310 | 54% | 57,106,398 | 84% | 438 |
| Scotland | 77,901 | 32% | 5,447,700 | 8% | 70 |
| Wales | 20,737 | 9% | 3,131,640 | 5% | 151 |
| Northern Ireland | 13,547 | 6% | 1,910,543 | 3% | 141 |
| United Kingdom | 242,495 | 100% | 67,596,281 | 100% | 279 |
England's population in 2011 was 53 million, representing some 84 per cent of the UK total.[345] It is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, with 420 people per square kilometre in mid-2015,[342] with a particular concentration in London and the south-east.[346] The 2011 census put Scotland's population at 5.3 million,[347] Wales at 3.06 million and Northern Ireland at 1.81 million.[345]
In 2017 the total fertility rate across the UK was 1.74 children born per woman.[348] While a rising birth rate is contributing to population growth, it remains considerably below the baby boom peak of 2.95 children per woman in 1964,[349] or the high of 6.02 children born per woman in 1815,[350] below the replacement rate of 2.1, but higher than the 2001 record low of 1.63.[351] In 2011, 47.3 per cent of births in the UK were to unmarried women.[352] The Office for National Statistics reported in 2015 that out of the UK population aged 16 and over, 1.7 per cent identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual (2.0 per cent of males and 1.5 per cent of females); 4.5 per cent of respondents responded with "other", "I don't know", or did not respond.[353] The number of transgender people in the UK was estimated to be between 65,000 and 300,000 by research between 2001 and 2008.[354]
| Rank | Urban area | Pop. | Principal settlement | Rank | Urban area | Pop. | Principal settlement | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Greater London | 9,787,426 | London | 11 | Bristol | 617,280 | Bristol | ||
| 2 | Greater Manchester | 2,553,379 | Manchester | 12 | Edinburgh | 512,150 | Edinburgh | ||
| 3 | West Midlands | 2,440,986 | Birmingham | 13 | Leicester | 508,916 | Leicester | ||
| 4 | West Yorkshire | 1,777,934 | Leeds | 14 | Belfast | 483,418 | Belfast | ||
| 5 | Greater Glasgow | 985,290 | Glasgow | 15 | Brighton & Hove | 474,485 | Brighton | ||
| 6 | Liverpool | 864,122 | Liverpool | 16 | South East Dorset | 466,266 | Bournemouth | ||
| 7 | South Hampshire | 855,569 | Southampton | 17 | Cardiff | 390,214 | Cardiff | ||
| 8 | Tyneside | 774,891 | Newcastle upon Tyne | 18 | Teesside | 376,633 | Middlesbrough | ||
| 9 | Nottingham | 729,977 | Nottingham | 19 | Stoke-on-Trent | 372,775 | Stoke-on-Trent | ||
| 10 | Sheffield | 685,368 | Sheffield | 20 | Coventry | 359,262 | Coventry | ||
Ethnicity
Historically, indigenous British people were thought to be descended from the various ethnic groups that settled there before the 12th century: the Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Norse and the Normans. Welsh people could be the oldest ethnic group in the UK.[358] The UK has a history of non-white immigration with Liverpool having the oldest Black population in the country dating back to at least the 1730s during the period of the African slave trade. During this period it is estimated the Afro-Caribbean population of Great Britain was 10,000 to 15,000[359] which later declined due to the abolition of slavery.[360] The UK also has the oldest Chinese community in Europe, dating to the arrival of Chinese seamen in the 19th century.[361] In 2011[update], 87.2 per cent of the UK population identified themselves as white, meaning 12.8 per cent of the UK population identify themselves as of one of an ethnic minority group.[362]
| Ethnic group | Population (absolute) | Population (per cent) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2001 | 2011 | 2001[363] | 2011[362] | ||
| White | 54,153,898 | 55,010,359 | 92.1% | 87.1% | |
| White: Gypsy, Traveller and Irish Traveller[v] | – | 63,193 | – | 0.1% | |
| Asian and Asian British | Indian | 1,053,411 | 1,451,862 | 1.8% | 2.3% |
| Pakistani | 747,285 | 1,174,983 | 1.3% | 1.9% | |
| Bangladeshi | 283,063 | 451,529 | 0.5% | 0.7% | |
| Chinese | 247,403 | 433,150 | 0.4% | 0.7% | |
| Other Asian | 247,664 | 861,815 | 0.4% | 1.4% | |
| Black, African, Caribbean and Black British[w] | 1,148,738 | 1,904,684 | 2.0% | 3.0% | |
| Mixed or multiple ethnic groups | 677,117 | 1,250,229 | 1.2% | 2.0% | |
| Other ethnic groups | 230,615 | 580,374 | 0.4% | 0.9% | |
| Total | 58,789,194 | 63,182,178 | 100.0% | 100.0% | |
Ethnic diversity varies significantly across the UK. 30.4 per cent of London's population and 37.4 per cent of Leicester's was estimated to be non-white in 2005[update],[366] whereas less than 5 per cent of the populations of North East England, Wales and the South West were from ethnic minorities, according to the 2001 census.[367] In 2016[update], 31.4 per cent of primary and 27.9 per cent of secondary pupils at state schools in England were members of an ethnic minority.[368]
Languages
The English language is the official and most spoken language of the United Kingdom.[369][370] The United Kingdom proactively promotes the language globally to build connections, understanding and trust between people in the UK and countries worldwide.[371][372] It is estimated that 95 per cent of the UK's population are monolingual English speakers.[373] Over 5.5 per cent of the population are estimated to speak languages brought to the UK as a result of relatively recent[when?] immigration.[373] South Asian languages are the largest grouping which includes Punjabi, Urdu, Bengali, Sylheti, Hindi, Pahari-Pothwari, Tamil, and Gujarati.[374] According to the 2011 census, Polish has become the second-largest language spoken in England and has 546,000 speakers.[375] In 2019, some three-quarters of a million people spoke little or no English.[376]
Three indigenous Celtic languages are spoken in the UK: Welsh, Irish and Scottish Gaelic. Cornish, which became extinct as a first language in the late 18th century, is subject to revival efforts and has a small group of second language speakers.[377][2] According to the 2021 census, the Welsh-speaking population of Wales aged three or older was 538,300 people (17.8 per cent).[378] In addition, it is estimated that about 200,000 Welsh speakers live in England.[379] In the 2021 census in Northern Ireland 12.4% of people had some ability in the Irish language and 10.4% of people had some ability in the Ulster-Scots language.[380] Over 92,000 people in Scotland (just under 2 per cent of the population) had some Gaelic language ability, including 72 per cent of those living in the Outer Hebrides.[381] The number of children being taught either Welsh or Scottish Gaelic is increasing.[382] Scots, a language descended from early northern Middle English, has limited recognition alongside its regional variant, Ulster Scots in Northern Ireland, without specific commitments to protection and promotion.[2][383] As of April 2020, there are said to be around 151,000 users of British Sign Language (BSL), a sign language used by deaf people, in the UK.[384]
Religion
Religion in the United Kingdom (2022 census)[385]
Forms of Christianity have dominated religious life in what is now the United Kingdom for more than 1,400 years.[386] Although a majority of citizens still identify with Christianity in many surveys, regular church attendance has fallen dramatically since the middle of the 20th century,[387] while immigration and demographic change have contributed to the growth of other faiths, most notably Islam.[388] This has led some commentators to variously describe the UK as a multi-faith,[389] secularised,[390] or post-Christian society.[391]
In the 2001 census, 71.6 per cent of all respondents indicated that they were Christians, with the next largest faiths being Islam (2.8 per cent), Hinduism (1.0 per cent), Sikhism (0.6 per cent), Judaism (0.5 per cent), Buddhism (0.3 per cent) and all other religions (0.3 per cent).[392] Of the respondents, 15 per cent stated that they had no religion and a further 7 per cent did not state a religious preference.[393] A Tearfund survey in 2007 showed that only one in ten Britons actually attend church weekly.[394] Between the 2001 and 2011 census, there was a 12 per cent decrease in the number of people who identified as Christian, while the percentage of those reporting no religious affiliation doubled. This contrasted with growth in the other main religious group categories, with the number of Muslims increasing by the most substantial margin to a total of about 5 per cent.[395] The Muslim population has increased from 1.6 million in 2001 to 2.7 million in 2011, making it the second-largest religious group in the UK.[396]
The Church of England is the established church in England.[397] It retains a representation in the UK Parliament, and the British monarch is its Supreme Governor.[398] In Scotland, the Church of Scotland is recognised as the national church. It is not subject to state control, and the British monarch is an ordinary member, required to swear an oath to "maintain and preserve the Protestant Religion and Presbyterian Church Government" upon his or her accession.[399][2][400] The Church in Wales was disestablished in 1920 and, because the Church of Ireland was disestablished in 1870 before the partition of Ireland, there is no established church in Northern Ireland.[401] Although there are no UK-wide data in the 2001 census on adherence to individual Christian denominations, it has been estimated that 62 per cent of Christians are Anglican, 13.5 per cent Catholic, 6 per cent Presbyterian, and 3.4 per cent Methodist, with small numbers of other Protestant denominations.[402]
Migration
Immigration is now[when?] contributing to a rising UK population,[403][404] with arrivals and UK-born children of migrants accounting for about half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001. According to official statistics released in 2015, 27 per cent of UK live births in 2014 were to mothers born outside the UK.[405] The ONS reported that net migration rose from 2009 to 2010 by 21 per cent to 239,000.[406]
In 2013, approximately 208,000 foreign nationals were naturalised as British citizens, the highest number since 1962. This figure fell to around 125,800 in 2014. Between 2009 and 2013, the average number of British citizenships granted annually was 195,800. The most common previous nationalities of those naturalised in 2014 were Indian, Pakistani, Filipino, Nigerian, Bangladeshi, Nepali, Chinese, South African, Polish and Somali.[407] The total number of grants of settlement, which confer permanent residence in the UK but not citizenship,[408] was approximately 154,700 in 2013, higher than the previous two years.[407] Long-term net migration (the number of people immigrating minus the number emigrating) reached a record high of 764,000 in 2022, with immigration at 1.26 million and emigration at 493,000.[409] In 2023 net migration was 685,000; 10% of the total who came to the UK in that year were EU Nationals.[404] More EU Nationals left the UK than arrived.[404]
Emigration was an important feature of British society in the 19th century. Between 1815 and 1930, around 11.4 million people emigrated from Britain and 7.3 million from Ireland. Estimates show that by the end of the 20th century, some 300 million people of British and Irish descent were permanently settled around the globe.[410] Today,[when?] at least 5.5 million UK-born people live abroad,[411][412] mainly in Australia, Spain, the United States and Canada.[411][413]
Education
Education in the United Kingdom is a devolved matter, with each country having a separate education system. About 38 per cent of the United Kingdom population has a university or college degree, which is the highest percentage in Europe, and among the highest percentages in the world.[414] The United Kingdom is home to many universities, including the University of Oxford and University of Cambridge which often achieve first place on global rankings.[415][416]
University education has varied tuition fees between the different regions of the UK. England and Wales have a fixed maximum annual fee for all UK citizens, contingent on attaining a certain level of income. Only those who reach a certain salary threshold (£21,000) pay this fee through general taxation. Northern Ireland and Scotland have a reduced maximum fee or no fee for citizens where it is their home region. Some NHS courses have bursaries which pay the fee and in 2017 it was stated that each doctor gets subsidised by £230,000 during their training.[417][418]
In 2022, the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), coordinated by the OECD, ranked the overall knowledge and skills of British 15-year-olds as 14th in the world in reading, mathematics and science. The average British student scored 494, well above the OECD average of 478.[419][420]
Healthcare
The modern system of universal publicly funded in the United Kingdom has its origins in the creation of the National Health Service (NHS) in 1949 which still exists to this day and is the primary healthcare provider in the United Kingdom. The widespread popularity of the NHS has led to it being described as a "national religion".[421][422] Healthcare in the United Kingdom is a devolved matter and each country has its own system of universal publicly funded healthcare, although private healthcare is also available. Public healthcare is provided to all UK permanent residents and is mostly free at the point of need, being paid for from general taxation. The World Health Organization, in 2000, ranked the provision of healthcare in the United Kingdom as fifteenth best in Europe and eighteenth in the world.[423]
Since 1979, expenditure on healthcare has been increased significantly.[424] The 2018 OECD data, which incorporates in health a chunk of what in the UK is classified as social care, has the UK spending £3,121 per head.[425] In 2017 the UK spent £2,989 per person on healthcare, around the median for members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.[426]
Regulatory bodies are organised on a UK-wide basis such as the General Medical Council, the Nursing and Midwifery Council and non-governmental-based, such as the Royal Colleges. Political and operational responsibility for healthcare lies with four national executives; healthcare in England is the responsibility of the UK Government; healthcare in Northern Ireland is the responsibility of the Northern Ireland Executive; healthcare in Scotland is the responsibility of the Scottish Government; and healthcare in Wales is the responsibility of the Welsh Government. Each National Health Service has different policies and priorities, resulting in contrasts.[427]
Culture
The culture of the United Kingdom is influenced by many factors including: the nation's island status; its history; and being a political union of four countries with each preserving elements of distinctive traditions, customs and symbolism. As a result of the British Empire, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies, in particular, the United States, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Ireland, a common culture known today as the Anglosphere.[428][429] The substantial cultural influence of the United Kingdom has led to it being described as a cultural superpower.[116][117] A global survey in 2023 ranked the UK 3rd in the 'Most Influential Countries' rankings (behind the US and China).[430]
Literature
British literature includes literature associated with the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. Most British literature is in English. In 2022, 669 million physical books were sold in the UK, this is the highest overall level ever recorded.[431] Britain is renowned for children's literature, writer's includes Daniel Defoe, Rudyard Kipling, Lewis Carroll and Beatrix Potter who also illustrated her own books. Other writers include A.A. Milne, Enid Blyton, J.R.R. Tolkien, Roald Dahl, Terry Pratchett and J.K. Rowling who wrote the best selling book series of all time.[432]
The English playwright and poet William Shakespeare is widely regarded as the greatest dramatist of all time.[433] Other important English writers include Geoffrey Chaucer, known for The Canterbury Tales, the poet William Wordsworth and other romantic poets, also the novelists Charles Dickens, H. G. Wells, George Orwell and Ian Fleming. The 20th-century English crime writer Agatha Christie is the best-selling novelist of all time.[434] Twelve of the top 25 of 100 novels by British writers chosen by a BBC poll of global critics were written by women; these included works by George Eliot, Virginia Woolf, Charlotte and Emily Brontë, Mary Shelley, Jane Austen, Doris Lessing and Zadie Smith.[435]
Scotland's contributions include Arthur Conan Doyle (the creator of Sherlock Holmes), Sir Walter Scott, J. M. Barrie, Robert Louis Stevenson and the poet Robert Burns. More recently Hugh MacDiarmid and Neil M. Gunn contributed to the Scottish Renaissance, with grimmer works from Ian Rankin and Iain Banks. Scotland's capital, Edinburgh, was UNESCO's first worldwide City of Literature.[436]
Welsh literature includes Britain's oldest known poem, Y Gododdin, which was composed most likely in the late 6th century. It was written in Cumbric or Old Welsh and contains the earliest known reference to King Arthur.[437] The Arthurian legend was further developed by Geoffrey of Monmouth.[438] Poet Dafydd ap Gwilym (fl. 1320–1370) is regarded as one of the greatest European poets of his age.[439] Daniel Owen is credited as the first Welsh-language novelist, publishing Rhys Lewis in 1885. The best-known of the Anglo-Welsh poets are Dylan Thomas and R. S. Thomas, the latter nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1996. Leading Welsh novelists of the twentieth century include Richard Llewellyn and Kate Roberts.[440][441]
Northern Ireland's most popular writer is C.S. Lewis who was born in Belfast and wrote The Chronicles of Narnia.[442] Irish writers, living at a time when all of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom, include Oscar Wilde,[443] Bram Stoker[444] and George Bernard Shaw.[445] There have been many authors whose origins were from outside the United Kingdom but who moved to the UK, including Joseph Conrad,[446] T. S. Eliot,[447] Kazuo Ishiguro,[448] Sir Salman Rushdie[449] and Ezra Pound.[450]
Philosophy
The United Kingdom is famous for the tradition of 'British Empiricism', a branch of the philosophy of knowledge that states that only knowledge verified by experience is valid, and 'Scottish Philosophy', sometimes referred to as the 'Scottish School of Common Sense'.[451] The most famous philosophers of British Empiricism are John Locke, George Berkeley[x] and David Hume; while Dugald Stewart, Thomas Reid and William Hamilton were major exponents of the Scottish "common sense" school. Two Britons are also notable for the ethical theory of utilitarianism, a moral philosophy first used by Jeremy Bentham and later by John Stuart Mill in his short work Utilitarianism.[452]
Music
Various styles of music have become popular in the UK, including the indigenous folk music of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. Historically, there has been exceptional Renaissance music from the Tudor period, with masses, madrigals and lute music by Thomas Tallis, John Taverner, William Byrd, Orlando Gibbons and John Dowland. After the Stuart Restoration, an English tradition of dramatic masques, anthems and airs became established, led by Henry Purcell, followed by Thomas Arne and others. The German-born composer George Frideric Handel became a naturalised British citizen in 1727, when he composed the anthem Zadok the Priest for the coronation of George II; it became the traditional ceremonial music for anointing all future monarchs. Handel's many oratorios, such as his famous Messiah, were written in the English language.[453] In the second half of the 19th century, as Arthur Sullivan and his librettist W. S. Gilbert wrote their popular Savoy operas, Edward Elgar's wide range of music rivalled that of his contemporaries on the continent. Increasingly, however, composers became inspired by the English countryside and its folk music, notably Gustav Holst, Ralph Vaughan Williams, and Benjamin Britten, a pioneer of modern British opera. Among the many post-war composers, some of the most notable have made their own personal choice of musical identity: Peter Maxwell Davies (Orkney), Harrison Birtwistle (mythological), and John Tavener (religious).[454] Today, recent classical singers include: Alfie Boe, Bryn Terfel, Katherine Jenkins, Michael Ball, Roderick Williams, Russell Watson and Sarah Brightman, while Nicola Benedetti and Nigel Kennedy are renowned for their violin ability.[455]
According to The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, the term "pop music" originated in Britain in the mid-1950s to describe rock and roll's fusion with the "new youth music".[456] The Oxford Dictionary of Music states that artists such as the Beatles and the Rolling Stones drove pop music to the forefront of popular music in the early 1960s.[457] Birmingham became known as the birthplace of heavy metal, with the band Black Sabbath starting there in the 1960s.[458] In the following years, Britain widely occupied a part in the development of rock music, with British acts pioneering hard rock;[459] raga rock; heavy metal;[460] space rock; glam rock;[461] Gothic rock,[462] psychedelic rock,[463] and punk rock.[464] British acts also developed neo soul and created dubstep.[465] The modern UK is known to produce some of the most prominent English-speaking rappers along with the United States, including Stormzy, Kano, Yxng Bane, Ramz, Little Simz and Skepta.[466]
The Beatles have international sales of over 1 billion units and are the biggest-selling and most influential band in the history of popular music.[467][468][469][470] Other prominent British contributors to have influenced popular music over the last 50 years include the Rolling Stones, Pink Floyd, Queen, Led Zeppelin, the Bee Gees, and Elton John, all of whom have worldwide record sales of 200 million or more.[471] The Brit Awards are the BPI's annual music awards, and some of the British recipients of the Outstanding Contribution to Music award include the Who, David Bowie, Eric Clapton, Rod Stewart, the Police, and Fleetwood Mac (who are a British-American band).[472] More recent UK music acts that have had international success include George Michael, Oasis, Spice Girls, Radiohead, Coldplay, Arctic Monkeys, Robbie Williams, Amy Winehouse, Susan Boyle, Adele, Ed Sheeran, Lewis Capaldi, One Direction, Harry Styles and Dua Lipa.[473]
A number of UK cities are known for their music. Acts from Liverpool have had 54 UK chart number 1 hit singles, more per capita than any other city worldwide.[474] Glasgow's contribution to music was recognised in 2008 when it was named a UNESCO City of Music.[475] Manchester played a role in the spread of dance music such as acid house, and from the mid-1990s, Britpop. London and Bristol are closely associated with the origins of electronic music sub-genres such as drum and bass and trip hop.[476]
UK dance music traces its roots back to the Black British Sound System Culture and the New Age Traveller movement of the 60s and 70s,[477] it also has influences from New Wave and Synth-pop such as from bands New Order and Depeche Mode[478] and also has influences from the Chicago House and Detroit Techno scenes. In the late 80's, dance music exploded with Rave culture mainly Acid House tracks which were made mainstream with novelty records (such as Smart E's Sesame's Treet and the Prodigy's Charly)[479] and the Balearic sound brought back from the Ibiza club scene. This led on to genres such as UK Garage, Speed Garage, Drum and bass, Jungle, Trance and Dubstep. Influential UK dance acts past and present include 808 State, Orbital, the Prodigy, Underworld, Roni Size, Leftfield, Massive Attack, Groove Armada, Fatboy Slim, Faithless, Basement Jaxx, Chemical Brothers, Sub Focus, Chase & Status, Disclosure, Calvin Harris and Fred Again.[480] Other influential UK DJs include Judge Jules, Pete Tong, Carl Cox, Paul Oakenfold, John Digweed and Sasha.[481]
Visual art
Major British artists include: the Romantics William Blake, John Constable, Samuel Palmer and J. M. W. Turner; the portrait painters Sir Joshua Reynolds and Lucian Freud; the landscape artists Thomas Gainsborough and L. S. Lowry; the pioneer of the Arts and Crafts Movement William Morris; the figurative painter Francis Bacon; the Pop artists Peter Blake, Richard Hamilton and David Hockney; the pioneers of Conceptual art movement Art & Language;[482] the collaborative duo Gilbert and George; the abstract artist Howard Hodgkin; and the sculptors Antony Gormley, Anish Kapoor and Henry Moore. During the late 1980s and 1990s the Saatchi Gallery in London helped to bring to public attention a group of multi-genre artists who would become known as the "Young British Artists": Damien Hirst, Chris Ofili, Rachel Whiteread, Tracey Emin, Mark Wallinger, Steve McQueen, Sam Taylor-Wood and the Chapman Brothers are among the better-known members of this loosely affiliated movement.
The Royal Academy in London is a key organisation for the promotion of the visual arts in the United Kingdom. Major schools of art in the UK include: the six-school University of the Arts London, which includes the Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design and Chelsea College of Art and Design; Goldsmiths, University of London; the Slade School of Fine Art (part of University College London); the Glasgow School of Art; the Royal College of Art; and The Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art (part of the University of Oxford). The Courtauld Institute of Art is a leading centre for the teaching of the history of art. Important art galleries in the United Kingdom include the National Gallery, National Portrait Gallery, Tate Britain and Tate Modern (the most-visited modern art gallery in the world, with around 4.7 million visitors per year).[483]
Cinema
The United Kingdom has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema. The British directors Alfred Hitchcock, whose film Vertigo is considered by some critics as the best film of all time,[484] and David Lean who directed Lawrence of Arabia are among the most critically acclaimed directors of all time.[485] Recent popular directors include: Christopher Nolan, Sam Mendes, Steve McQueen, Richard Curtis, Danny Boyle, Tony Scott and Ridley Scott.[486][487][488][489] Many British actors have achieved international fame and critical success. Some of the most commercially successful films of all time have been produced in the United Kingdom, including two of the highest-grossing film franchises (Harry Potter and James Bond).[490]
2019 was a particularly good year for British films which grossed around £10.3 billion globally which was 28.7% of global box office revenue.[491] UK box-office takings totalled £1.25 billion in 2019, with around 176 million admissions.[492] In 2023 UK film and television studio stage space stands at 6.9 million sq ft, with 1 million sq ft added in the past year with more in development.[493] The annual BAFTA Film Awards are hosted by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts.[494]
Cuisine
British cuisine developed from various influences reflective of its land, settlements, arrivals of new settlers and immigrants, trade and colonialism. The food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce.[495] The traditional Sunday roast is one example, featuring a roasted joint, usually of beef, lamb, chicken or pork, often free range (and generally grass-fed, in the case of beef). Roasts are served with either roasted or boiled vegetables, Yorkshire pudding, and gravy. Other traditional meals include meat pies and various stews. A 2019 YouGov poll rated classic British food, the following had more than 80% of people like them who had tried them: Sunday roast, Yorkshire pudding, Fish and chips, Crumpets, and Full English breakfast.[496]
The UK is home to a large selection of fine-dining experiences, in 2024 there were 187 Restaurants with a Michelin Star, 49 of them consider their cuisine to be 'Modern British'.[497] Sweet foods are common within British cuisine, and there is a long list of British desserts. Afternoon tea is a light afternoon meal served with tea in tea rooms and hotels around the United Kingdom, with the tradition dating back to around 1840.[498] Vegan and vegetarian diets have increased in Britain in recent years.[499]
The British Empire facilitated a knowledge of Indian cuisine with its "strong, penetrating spices and herbs". British cuisine has absorbed the cultural influence of those who have settled in Britain, producing hybrid dishes, such as chicken tikka masala.[500] The British have embraced world cuisine and regularly eat recipes or fast food from Europe, the Caribbean and Asia.
Media
.jpg)
The BBC, founded in 1922, is the UK's publicly funded radio, television and Internet broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest and largest broadcaster in the world.[501][502][503] It operates numerous television and radio stations in the UK and abroad and its domestic services are funded by the television licence.[504] The BBC World Service is an international broadcaster owned and operated by the BBC. It is the world's largest of any kind.[505] It broadcasts radio news, speech and discussions in more than 40 languages.[506]
Other major players in the UK media include ITV, which operates 11 of the 15 regional television broadcasters that make up the ITV Network,[507] and Sky.[508] Newspapers produced in the United Kingdom include the Daily Mail, The Guardian, The Telegraph, The Times, and the Financial Times.[509] Magazines and journals published in the United Kingdom that have achieved worldwide circulation include The Spectator, The Economist, New Statesman, and Radio Times.
London dominates the media sector in the UK: national newspapers and television and radio are largely based there, although MediaCityUK in Manchester is also a significant national media centre. Edinburgh and Glasgow, and Cardiff, are important centres of newspaper and broadcasting production in Scotland and Wales, respectively.[510] The UK publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover of around £20 billion and employs around 167,000 people.[511] In 2015, the UK published 2,710 book titles per million inhabitants, more than any other country, much of this being exported to other Anglophone countries.[512]
In 2010, 82.5 per cent of the UK population were Internet users, the highest proportion among the 20 countries with the largest total number of users in that year.[513] The British video game industry is the largest in Europe, and, since 2022, the UK has the largest video game market in Europe by sales, overtaking Germany.[514] It is the world's third-largest producer of video games after Japan and the United States.[515]
Sport
Association football, tennis, table tennis, badminton, rugby union, rugby league, rugby sevens, golf, boxing, netball, water polo, field hockey, billiards, darts, rowing, rounders and cricket originated or were substantially developed in the UK, with the rules and codes of many modern sports invented and codified in late 19th-century Victorian Britain.[y]
A 2003 poll found that football is the most popular sport in the UK.[518] England is recognised by FIFA as the birthplace of club football, and the Football Association is the oldest of its kind, with the rules of football first drafted in 1863 by Ebenezer Cobb Morley.[519] Each of the Home Nations (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) has its own football association, national team and league system, and each is individually a governing member of the International Football Association Board alongside FIFA. The English top division, the Premier League, is the most watched football league in the world.[520] The first international football match was contested by England and Scotland on 30 November 1872.[521] England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland usually compete as separate countries in international competitions.[522]
In 2003, rugby union was ranked the second most popular sport in the UK.[518] The sport was created in Rugby School, Warwickshire, and the first rugby international took place on 27 March 1871 between England and Scotland.[523][524] England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, France and Italy compete in the Six Nations Championship, which is the premier international rugby union tournament in the northern hemisphere. Sports governing bodies in England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland organise and regulate the game separately.[525] Every four years, the Home Nations make a combined team known as the British and Irish Lions which tours Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.
The United Kingdom hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1908, 1948 and 2012, with London acting as the host city on all three occasions. Birmingham hosted the 2022 Commonwealth Games, the seventh time a constitute country in the United Kingdom hosted the Commonwealth Games (England, Scotland and Wales have each hosted the Commonwealth Games at least once).[526]
Symbols
.jpg)
The flag of the United Kingdom is the Union Flag (also referred to as the Union Jack).[527] It was created in 1606 by the superimposition of the flag of England, representing Saint George, on the flag of Scotland, representing Saint Andrew, and was updated in 1801 with the addition of Saint Patrick's Flag.[528] Wales is not represented in the Union Flag, as Wales had been conquered and annexed to England prior to the formation of the United Kingdom. The possibility of redesigning the Union Flag to include representation of Wales has not been completely ruled out.[529] The national anthem of the United Kingdom is "God Save the King", with "King" replaced with "Queen" in the lyrics whenever the monarch is a woman.
Britannia is a national personification of the United Kingdom, originating from Roman Britain.[530] Beside The Lion and the Unicorn and the dragon of heraldry, the bulldog is an iconic animal and commonly represented with the Union Flag.[531] A now rare personification is a character originating in the 18th century, John Bull.[532]
England, Wales, and Scotland each have a number of their own national symbols, including their national flags. Northern Ireland also has a number of symbols, many of which are shared with the Republic of Ireland.
See also
- Outline of the United Kingdom
- Index of United Kingdom-related articles
- International rankings of the United Kingdom
- Historiography of the United Kingdom
- Historiography of the British Empire
- United Kingdom–Crown Dependencies Customs Union
Notes
- ^ "God Save the King" is the national anthem by custom, not statute, and there is no authorised version. Only the first verse is usually sung.[1] The words King, he, him, his, used at present, are replaced by Queen, she, her when the monarch is female.
- ^ Scots, Ulster Scots, Welsh, Cornish, Scottish Gaelic and Irish are classed as regional or minority languages under the Council of Europe's European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[2] These include defined obligations to promote those languages.[3] See also Languages of the United Kingdom. Welsh has limited officially official status in Wales, as well as in the provision of national government services provided for Wales.
- ^ a b c Scotland held its census a year later after England, Wales and Northern Ireland due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result, the data shown is from two separate years.
- ^ Although the United Kingdom has traditionally been seen as a unitary state, an alternative description of the UK as a "union state", put forward by, among others, Vernon Bogdanor,[9] has become increasingly influential since the adoption of devolution in the 1990s.[10] A union state is considered to differ from a unitary state in that while it maintains a central authority it also recognises the authority of historic rights and infrastructures of its component parts.[11]
- ^ ONS Standard Area Measurement, 'area to mean high water excluding inland water'. Excludes the Crown Dependencies and British Overseas Territories.
- ^ a b c ONS Standard Area Measurement, 'area to mean high water'. Excludes the Crown Dependencies and British Overseas Territories.
- ^ Some of the devolved countries, Crown Dependencies and British Overseas Territories issue their own sterling banknotes or currencies, or use another nation's currency. See List of British currencies.
- ^ Also observed by the Crown Dependencies. For further information, see Time in the United Kingdom.
- ^ The UK Government uses the ISO 8601 format, yyyy-mm-dd for machine-readable dates and times.[20] See Date and time notation in the United Kingdom.
- ^ Except two overseas territories: Gibraltar and the British Indian Ocean Territory
- ^ Excludes most overseas territories
- ^ The .gb domain is also reserved for the UK, but has been little used.
- ^ Usage is mixed. The Guardian and Telegraph use Britain as a synonym for the United Kingdom. Some prefer to use Britain as shorthand for Great Britain. The British Cabinet Office's Government Digital Service style guide for use on gov.uk recommends: "Use UK and United Kingdom in preference to Britain and British (UK business, UK foreign policy, ambassador and high commissioner). But British embassy, not UK embassy."
- ^ The Isle of Man, Guernsey and Jersey are Crown Dependencies and not part of the UK.
- ^ The United Kingdom does not have a codified constitution but an unwritten one formed of Acts of Parliament, court judgments, traditions, and conventions.[31]
- ^ Compare to section 1 of both of the 1800 Acts of Union which reads: "the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland shall ... be united into one kingdom, by the name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland".
- ^ Historically, the term British was used to refer to members and institutions within the British Empire and later Commonwealth and was not limited to the geographical British Isles. The UK Government adopted the term for its exclusive use only in 1961, but in recognition of its wider usage first sought the prior consent of Australia, Canada and New Zealand.[56][57]
- ^ British sovereignty derives from the Crown, a corporation sole occupied by the monarch. It is therefore by and through the monarch that Parliament exercises supreme legislative authority over both the executive and judiciary. Distinguished Professor of Public Law Maurice Sunkin opined the Crown symbolically occupies "…what in other places would be a core element of a written constitution."[171] As a result of this state of constitutional affairs, the monarch is formally referred to as "the Sovereign" in legislation.[172]
- ^ For instance, the monarch alone appoints the prime minister and confers state honours in the personal gift of the Crown. When necessary, the monarch may also refuse a dissolution or prorogation of Parliament, withhold royal assent to primary legislation, and prevent illegal use of the British Armed Forces, among other reserve powers.[179]
- ^ Real GDP is an inflation-adjusted GDP, which is needed if you need to study changes in volume rather than value especially if the currency devalues due to the inflation but does not show current market values.[272]
- ^ Car brands here are classed as British based on several of the following criteria: historical heritage, cultural significance, design and engineering base, manufacturing location, headquarters location, UK registered company (even with overseas investors).
- ^ The 2011 census recorded Gypsies and Travellers as a separate ethnic group for the first time.
- ^ In the 2011 census, for the purpose of harmonising results to make them comparable across the UK, the ONS includes individuals in Scotland who classified themselves in the "African" category (29,638 people), which in the Scottish version of the census is separate from "Caribbean or Black" (6,540 people),[364] in this "Black or Black British" category. The ONS note that "the African categories used in Scotland could potentially capture White/Asian/Other African in addition to Black identities".[365]
- ^ Berkeley is in fact Irish but was called a 'British empiricist' due to the territory of what is now known as the Republic of Ireland being in the UK at the time.
- ^ In 2012, the president of the IOC, Jacques Rogge, stated, "This great, sports-loving country is widely recognised as the birthplace of modern sport. It was here that the concepts of sportsmanship and fair play were first codified into clear rules and regulations. It was here that sport was included as an educational tool in the school curriculum".[516][517]
References
- ^ "National Anthem". The Royal Family. Archived from the original on 20 May 2024. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
- ^ a b c d "List of declarations made with respect to treaty No. 148". Council of Europe. Archived from the original on 12 December 2013. Retrieved 12 December 2013.
- ^ "Welsh language on GOV.UK – Content design: planning, writing and managing content – Guidance". gov.uk. Archived from the original on 4 August 2018. Retrieved 3 August 2018.; "Welsh language scheme". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 4 August 2018. Retrieved 3 August 2018.; "Welsh language scheme". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 2 August 2018. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
- ^ "Ethnic group". Office for National Statistics. 28 March 2023. Archived from the original on 28 May 2024. Retrieved 28 May 2024.
- ^ "MS-B01 Ethnic group". Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. 30 November 2023. Archived from the original on 12 August 2023. Retrieved 28 May 2024.
- ^ a b "Ethnic group, national identity, language and religion". Scotland's Census. Archived from the original on 14 May 2021. Retrieved 28 May 2024.
- ^ "Religion (detailed)". Office for National Statistics. 5 April 2023. Archived from the original on 28 May 2024. Retrieved 28 May 2024.
- ^ "MS-B21 Religion - full detail". Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. 31 May 2023. Archived from the original on 13 June 2024. Retrieved 28 May 2024.
- ^ Bradbury, Jonathan (2021). Constitutional Policy and Territorial Politics in the UK: Volume 1: Union and Devolution 1997–2012. Policy Press. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-1-5292-0588-6. Archived from the original on 2 October 2024. Retrieved 3 October 2021.
- ^ Leith, Murray Stewart (2012). Political Discourse and National Identity in Scotland. Edinburgh University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-7486-8862-3. Archived from the original on 2 October 2024. Retrieved 3 October 2021.
- ^ Gagnon, Alain-G.; Tully, James (2001). Multinational Democracies. Cambridge University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-521-80473-8. Archived from the original on 2 October 2024. Retrieved 3 October 2021.; Bogdanor, Vernon (1998). "Devolution: the Constitutional Aspects". In Beatson, Jack (ed.). Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom: Practice and Principles. Oxford: Hart Publishing. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-901362-84-8.
- ^ a b c d "Standard Area Measurements for Administrative Areas (December 2023) in the UK". Open Geography Portal. Office for National Statistics. 31 May 2024. Archived from the original on 7 June 2024. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
- ^ a b c "Population estimates for the UK, England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland: mid-2023". www.ons.gov.uk. Office for National Statistics (ONS). 8 October 2024.
- ^ "Population and household estimates, England and Wales: Census 2021, unrounded data". Office for National Statistics. 2 November 2022. Retrieved 28 May 2024.
- ^ "2021 Census". Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 28 May 2024.
- ^ "Quality Assurance report – Unrounded population estimates and ethnic group, national identity, language and religion topic data". Scotland's Census. 21 May 2024. Archived from the original on 28 May 2024. Retrieved 28 May 2024.
- ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (United Kingdom)". www.imf.org. International Monetary Fund. 22 October 2024. Retrieved 22 October 2024.
- ^ "Income inequality". OECD Data. OECD. Archived from the original on 1 July 2022. Retrieved 12 February 2024.
- ^ "Human Development Report 2023/24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
- ^ "Formatting dates and times in data". gov.uk. HM Government. 9 August 2022. Archived from the original on 9 May 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
- ^ "Toponymic guidelines for map and other editors, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland". GOV.UK. 9 November 2023. 10.2 Definitions. Archived from the original on 17 June 2018. Retrieved 12 February 2024.
usually shortened to United Kingdom ... The abbreviation is UK or U.K.
- ^ "United Kingdom". Encyclopædia Britannica. 12 February 2024. Archived from the original on 13 October 2023. Retrieved 12 February 2024.
- ^ "A Beginners Guide to UK Geography (2023)". Open Geography Portal. Office for National Statistics. 24 August 2023. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
- ^ "Definition of Great Britain in English". Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 29 October 2014.
Great Britain is the name for the island that comprises England, Scotland and Wales, although the term is also used loosely to refer to the United Kingdom.
- ^ "Major Agglomerations". Archived from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
- ^ Mathias, P. (2001). The First Industrial Nation: the Economic History of Britain, 1700–1914. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26672-7.; Ferguson, Niall (2004). Empire: The rise and demise of the British world order and the lessons for global power. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02328-8.
- ^ McDougall, Walter A. (4 May 2023). "20th-century international relations". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 12 July 2019. Retrieved 6 May 2023.
- ^ Brown, Judith (1998). The Twentieth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume IV. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-924679-3. Archived from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2009. p. 319
- ^ Louis, Wm. Roger (2006). Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez and Decolonization. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-347-6. Archived from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 22 July 2009. p. 337
- ^ Abernethy, David (2000). The Dynamics of Global Dominance, European Overseas Empires 1415–1980. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09314-8. Archived from the original on 14 December 2011. Retrieved 22 July 2009. p. 146
- ^ What is the UK Constitution?, The Constitution Unit of UCL, 9 August 2018, archived from the original on 7 November 2018, retrieved 6 February 2020
- ^ The British Monarchy, "What is constitutional monarchy?" Archived 4 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 17 July 2013; "United Kingdom" Archived 9 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine CIA The World Factbook. Retrieved 17 July 2013
- ^ Dewart, Megan (2019). The Scottish Legal System. UK: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-5265-0633-7. Archived from the original on 4 July 2023. Retrieved 4 July 2023.
The laws and legal institutions of Scotland and of England and Wales were not merged by the Union of 1707. Thus, they remain separate 'law areas', with separate court systems (as does Northern Ireland), and it is necessary to distinguish Scots law and English law (and Northern Irish law).
; "The justice system and the constitution". Courts and Tribunals Judiciary. Archived from the original on 21 May 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2023.The United Kingdom has three separate legal systems; one each for England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. This reflects its historical origins and the fact that both Scotland and Ireland, and later Northern Ireland, retained their own legal systems and traditions under the Acts of Union 1707 and 1800.
- ^ "Devolution of powers to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland". United Kingdom Government. Archived from the original on 18 July 2013. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
In a similar way to how the government is formed from members from the two Houses of Parliament, members of the devolved legislatures nominate ministers from among themselves to comprise executives, known as the devolved administrations...
; "Country Overviews: United Kingdom". Transport Research Knowledge Centre. Archived from the original on 4 April 2010. Retrieved 28 March 2010. - ^ "IISS Military Balance 2021". The Military Balance. 121 (1): 23–29. January 2021. doi:10.1080/04597222.2021.1868791. ISSN 0459-7222. S2CID 232050862. Archived from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
- ^ da Silva, Diego Lopes; Tian, Nan; Béraud-Sudreau, Lucie; Marksteiner, Alexandra; Liang, Xiao (April 2022). Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2021 (fact sheet). SIPRI. doi:10.55163/DZJD8826. S2CID 248305949. Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 3 April 2023.
- ^ "What are the top 200 most spoken languages?". Ethnologue. 2023. Archived from the original on 18 June 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
- ^ "The Treaty (act) of the Union of Parliament 1706". Scots History Online. Archived from the original on 27 May 2019. Retrieved 23 August 2011; Barnett, Hilaire; Jago, Robert (2011). Constitutional & Administrative Law (8th ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-415-56301-7. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- ^ "After the political union of England and Scotland in 1707, the nation's official name became 'Great Britain'", The American Pageant, Volume 1, Cengage Learning (2012); "From 1707 until 1801 Great Britain was the official designation of the kingdoms of England and Scotland". The Standard Reference Work: For the Home, School and Library, Volume 3, Harold Melvin Stanford (1921); "In 1707, on the union with Scotland, 'Great Britain' became the official name of the British Kingdom, and so continued until the union with Ireland in 1801". United States Congressional serial set, Issue 10; Issue 3265 (1895); Gascoigne, Bamber. "History of Great Britain (from 1707)". History World. Archived from the original on 27 May 2019. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
- ^ Cottrell, P. (2008). The Irish Civil War 1922–23. Bloomsbury USA. p. 85. ISBN 978-1-84603-270-7.
- ^ S. Dunn; H. Dawson (2000), An Alphabetical Listing of Word, Name and Place in Northern Ireland and the Living Language of Conflict, Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press,
One specific problem – in both general and particular senses – is to know what to call Northern Ireland itself: in the general sense, it is not a country, or a province, or a state – although some refer to it contemptuously as a statelet: the least controversial word appears to be jurisdiction, but this might change.
; "Changes in the list of subdivision names and code elements" (PDF). ISO 3166-2. International Organization for Standardization. 15 December 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 September 2016. Retrieved 28 May 2012. - ^ "Countries within a country". Prime Minister's Office. 10 January 2003. Archived from the original on 9 September 2008. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- ^ "Statistical bulletin: Regional Labour Market Statistics". Archived from the original on 24 December 2014. Retrieved 5 March 2014.; "13.4% Fall In Earnings Value During Recession". Archived from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 5 March 2014.
- ^ Dunn, Seamus; Dawson, Helen (2000). An Alphabetical Listing of Word, Name and Place in Northern Ireland and the Living Language of Conflict. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 978-0-7734-7711-7.; Murphy, Dervla (1979). A Place Apart. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-005030-1.
- ^ Whyte, John; FitzGerald, Garret (1991). Interpreting Northern Ireland. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-827380-6.
- ^ "Guardian Unlimited Style Guide". London: Guardian News and Media Limited. 19 December 2008. Retrieved 23 August 2011.; "BBC style guide (Great Britain)". BBC News. 19 August 2002. Archived from the original on 15 February 2009. Retrieved 23 August 2011.; "Key facts about the United Kingdom". Government, citizens and rights. HM Government. Archived from the original on 15 October 2012. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- ^ New Oxford American Dictionary: "Great Britain: England, Wales, and Scotland considered as a unit. The name is also often used loosely to refer to the United Kingdom."
- ^ "When people say England, they sometimes mean Great Britain, sometimes the United Kingdom, sometimes the British Isles — but never England." — George Mikes (1946), How To Be An Alien, Penguin ISBN 978-0-582-41686-4; "England OR United Kingdom (UK)? | Vocabulary | EnglishClub". englishclub.com. Archived from the original on 16 October 2022. Retrieved 16 October 2022.
- ^ "Britain Meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary". dictionary.cambridge.org. Archived from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 19 June 2018.; "Definition of Britain in English by Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries – English. Archived from the original on 26 September 2016.
- ^ a b "Britain definition and meaning". collinsdictionary.com. Collins English Dictionary. Archived from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
- ^ "Britain – Definition for English-Language Learners". learnersdictionary.com. Merriam-Webster's Learner's Dictionary. Archived from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
- ^ "A to Z – Style guide". UK Government. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
- ^ a b Permanent Committee on Geographical Names (17 May 2023). "Toponymic guidelines for the United Kingdom". gov.uk. UK Government. Archived from the original on 17 June 2018. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
- ^ "BBC News style guide – Names". BBC Academy. BBC. Archived from the original on 10 November 2019. Retrieved 9 November 2019.; "Alphabetical checklist". BBC News. BBC. Archived from the original on 26 March 2018. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
- ^ Bradley, Anthony Wilfred; Ewing, Keith D. (2007). Constitutional and administrative law. Vol. 1 (14th ed.). Harlow: Pearson Longman. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-4058-1207-8. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- ^ Curran, James; Ward, Stuart (2010). The Unknown Nation: Australia after Empire. Carlton, Vic: Melbourne University Publishing. pp. 26–7. ISBN 978-0-522-85645-3.
- ^ Ward, Stuart (2023). Untied kingdom: A Global History of the End of Britain. Cambridge University Press. Chapter 1. ISBN 978-1-107-14599-3.
- ^ "Which of these best describes the way you think of yourself?". Northern Ireland Life and Times Survey 2010. ARK – Access Research Knowledge. 2010. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2010.
- ^ "Ethnicity and National Identity in England and Wales". Office for National Statistics. Archived from the original on 21 January 2022. Retrieved 25 June 2020.; Schrijver, Frans (2006). Regionalism after regionalisation: Spain, France and the United Kingdom. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 275–277. ISBN 978-90-5629-428-1. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- ^ "Ancient skeleton was 'even older' Archived 13 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine". BBC News. 30 October 2007. Retrieved 27 April 2011.
- ^ Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic culture: A historical encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 973. ISBN 978-1-85109-440-0.
- ^ Davies, John; Jenkins, Nigel; Baines, Menna; Lynch, Peredur I., eds. (2008). The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. p. 915. ISBN 978-0-7083-1953-6.
- ^ "Short Athelstan biography". BBC History. Archived from the original on 13 February 2007. Retrieved 9 April 2013.
- ^ Mackie, J.D. (1991). A History of Scotland. London: Penguin. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-0-14-013649-4.; Campbell, Ewan (1999). Saints and Sea-kings: The First Kingdom of the Scots. Edinburgh: Canongate. pp. 8–15. ISBN 978-0-86241-874-8.
- ^ Haigh, Christopher (1990). The Cambridge Historical Encyclopedia of Great Britain and Ireland. Cambridge University Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-521-39552-6.
- ^ Ganshof, F.L. (1996). Feudalism. University of Toronto. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-8020-7158-3.
- ^ Chibnall, Marjorie (1999). The Debate on the Norman Conquest. Manchester University Press. pp. 115–122. ISBN 978-0-7190-4913-2. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
- ^ "Magna Carta". parliament.uk. Retrieved 27 May 2024. "The contents of Magna Carta". parliament.uk. Archived from the original on 28 August 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2024. "Magna Carta Key Facts". Britannica. Archived from the original on 27 May 2024. Retrieved 27 May 2024.
- ^ Keen, Maurice. "The Hundred Years' War" Archived 14 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine. BBC History.
- ^ The Reformation in England and Scotland Archived 15 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine and Ireland: The Reformation Period & Ireland under Elizabeth I Archived 21 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
- ^ "English Reformation c1527-1590". The National Archives. Archived from the original on 2 December 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2023.
- ^ "British History in Depth – Wales under the Tudors". BBC History. 5 November 2009. Archived from the original on 7 February 2012. Retrieved 21 September 2010.
- ^ Nicholls, Mark (1999). A history of the modern British Isles, 1529–1603: The two kingdoms. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 171–172. ISBN 978-0-631-19334-0.
- ^ Canny, Nicholas P. (2003). Making Ireland British, 1580–1650. Oxford University Press. pp. 189–200. ISBN 978-0-19-925905-2.
- ^ Ross, D. (2002). Chronology of Scottish History. Glasgow: Geddes & Grosset. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-85534-380-1; Hearn, J. (2002). Claiming Scotland: National Identity and Liberal Culture. Edinburgh University Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-1-902930-16-9
- ^ "English Civil Wars". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2 May 2015. Retrieved 28 April 2013.; "Scotland and the Commonwealth: 1651–1660". Archontology.org. 14 March 2010. Archived from the original on 16 July 2012. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ Lodge, Richard (2007) [1910]. The History of England – From the Restoration to the Death of William III (1660–1702). Read Books. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-4067-0897-4. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- ^ "Tudor Period and the Birth of a Regular Navy". Royal Navy History. Institute of Naval History. Archived from the original on 3 November 2011. Retrieved 8 March 2015.; Canny, Nicholas (1998). The Origins of Empire, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume I. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-924676-2. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- ^ "Articles of Union with Scotland 1707". UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 8 June 2012. Retrieved 19 October 2008.; "Acts of Union 1707". UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 27 December 2010. Retrieved 6 January 2011.; "Treaty (act) of Union 1706". Scottish History online. Archived from the original on 27 May 2019. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
- ^ Library of Congress, The Impact of the American Revolution Abroad Archived 28 March 2024 at the Wayback Machine, p. 73.
- ^ Morgan, Kenneth (2007). Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-19-156627-1. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
- ^ Morgan, Kenneth (2007). Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America. Oxford University Press, US. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-19-156627-1. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
- ^ Sailing against slavery Archived 3 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine. BBC Devon. 2007.; Lovejoy, Paul E. (2000). Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 290. ISBN 978-0-521-78012-4.
- ^ "The Act of Union". Act of Union Virtual Library. Archived from the original on 15 April 2012. Retrieved 15 May 2006.
- ^ Tellier, L.-N. (2009). Urban World History: an Economic and Geographical Perspective. Quebec: PUQ. p. 463. ISBN 978-2-7605-1588-8.
- ^ Sondhaus, L. (2004). Navies in Modern World History. London: Reaktion Books. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-86189-202-7
- ^ Porter, Andrew (1998). The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III. Oxford University Press. p. 332. ISBN 978-0-19-924678-6.
- ^ Benn, David Wedgwood (March 2012). "The Crimean War and its lessons for today". International Affairs. 88 (2). Oxford University Press: 387–391. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01078.x. JSTOR 41428613.
- ^ Nordisk familjebok (1913), s. 435 Archived 9 December 2023 at the Wayback Machine (in Swedish)
- ^ Porter, Andrew (1998). The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III. Oxford University Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-19-924678-6.; Marshall, P.J. (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 156–157. ISBN 978-0-521-00254-7. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- ^ Tompson, Richard S. (2003). Great Britain: a reference guide from the Renaissance to the present. New York: Facts on File. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-8160-4474-0.
- ^ Fromkin, David (1980). "The Great Game in Asia". Foreign Affairs. 58 (4): 936–951. doi:10.2307/20040512. ISSN 0015-7120. JSTOR 20040512. Archived from the original on 12 April 2021. Retrieved 4 June 2023.
- ^ Hosch, William L. (2009). World War I: People, Politics, and Power. America at War. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-61530-048-8.
- ^ Zarembka, Paul (2013). Contradictions: Finance, Greed, and Labor Unequally Paid. Emerald Group Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78190-670-5. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 21 October 2020.
- ^ Sophia A. Van Wingerden, The women's suffrage movement in Britain, 1866–1928 (1999) ch 1.
- ^ Turner, John (1988). Britain and the First World War. London: Unwin Hyman. pp. 22–35. ISBN 978-0-04-445109-9.
- ^ a b c Westwell, I.; Cove, D. (eds) (2002). History of World War I, Volume 3. London: Marshall Cavendish. pp. 698, 705. ISBN 978-0-7614-7231-5.
- ^ Turner, J. (1988). Britain and the First World War. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-04-445109-9.
- ^ "100 years of radio since Marconi's big breakthrough". Ofcom. 15 June 2020. Archived from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
- ^ Linfoot, Matthew. "History of the BBC: The origins of BBC Local Radio". BBC. Archived from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 18 September 2022.
- ^ "History of the BBC: 1920s". BBC. Archived from the original on 26 September 2022. Retrieved 18 September 2022.
- ^ SR&O 1921/533 of 3 May 1921.
- ^ "The Anglo-Irish Treaty, 6 December 1921". CAIN Web Service. Archived from the original on 14 May 2012. Retrieved 15 May 2006.
- ^ Rubinstein, W.D. (2004). Capitalism, Culture, and Decline in Britain, 1750–1990. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-415-03719-8.
- ^ a b Edgerton, David (2012). Britain's War Machine. Penguin. Archived from the original on 28 April 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020; "Britain's War Machine: Weapons, Resources and Experts in the Second World War". Reviews in History. Archived from the original on 12 June 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
- ^ Septimus H. Paul (2000). Nuclear Rivals: Anglo-American Atomic Relations, 1941–1952. Ohio State U.P. pp. 1–5. ISBN 978-0-8142-0852-6.
- ^ "Minutes of a Meeting of the Combined Policy Committee, Washington, July 4, 1945". United States Department of State. Archived from the original on 18 September 2017. Retrieved 22 November 2017.
- ^ Doenecke, Justus D.; Stoler, Mark A. (2005). Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's foreign policies, 1933–1945. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8476-9416-7. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 19 March 2016.; Kelly, Brian. The Four Policemen and Postwar Planning, 1943–1945: The Collision of Realist and Idealist Perspectives. Indiana University of Pennsylvania. Archived from the original on 22 October 2015. Retrieved 25 August 2015.
- ^ "The "Special Relationship" between Great Britain and the United States Began with FDR". Roosevelt Institute. 22 July 2010. Archived from the original on 25 January 2018. Retrieved 24 January 2018.
and the joint efforts of both powers to create a new post-war strategic and economic order through the drafting of the Atlantic Charter; the establishment of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank; and the creation of the United Nations.
; "Remarks by the President Obama and Prime Minister Cameron in Joint Press Conference" (Press release). The White House. 22 April 2016. Archived from the original on 8 June 2021. Retrieved 24 January 2018.That's what we built after World War II. The United States and the UK designed a set of institutions – whether it was the United Nations, or the Bretton Woods structure, IMF, World Bank, NATO, across the board.
- ^ "Britain to make its final payment on World War II loan from U.S." The New York Times. 28 December 2006. Archived from the original on 20 August 2017. Retrieved 25 August 2011.
- ^ Reynolds, David (17 April 2011). "Britain's War Machine by David Edgerton – review". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 12 June 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
- ^ Francis, Martin (1997). Ideas and policies under Labour, 1945–1951: Building a new Britain. Manchester University Press. pp. 225–233. ISBN 978-0-7190-4833-3.
- ^ Lee, Stephen J. (1996). Aspects of British political history, 1914–1995. London; New York: Routledge. pp. 173–199. ISBN 978-0-415-13103-2.
- ^ Larres, Klaus (2009). A companion to Europe since 1945. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 118. ISBN 978-1-4051-0612-2. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- ^ "Country List". Commonwealth Secretariat. 19 March 2009. Archived from the original on 6 May 2013. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- ^ a b "The cultural superpower: British cultural projection abroad" (PDF). British Politics Review. 6 (1). Norway: British Politics Society. Winter 2011. ISSN 1890-4505. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 September 2018.
- ^ a b Sheridan, Greg (15 May 2010). "Cameron has chance to make UK great again". The Australian. Sydney. Retrieved 20 May 2012.
- ^ Julios, Christina (2008). Contemporary British identity: English language, migrants, and public discourse. Studies in migration and diaspora. Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-7546-7158-9. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- ^ Loughran, Thomas; Mycock, Andrew; Tonge, Jonathan (3 April 2021). "A coming of age: how and why the UK became the first democracy to allow votes for 18-year-olds". Contemporary British History. 35 (2): 284–313. doi:10.1080/13619462.2021.1890589. ISSN 1361-9462. S2CID 233956982. Archived from the original on 4 June 2023. Retrieved 24 May 2024.
- ^ "1975: UK embraces Europe in referendum". BBC News. Archived from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- ^ Aughey, Arthur (2005). The Politics of Northern Ireland: Beyond the Belfast Agreement. London: Routledge. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-415-32788-6.; "The troubles were over, but the killing continued. Some of the heirs to Ireland's violent traditions refused to give up their inheritance." Holland, Jack (1999). Hope against History: The Course of Conflict in Northern Ireland. New York: Henry Holt. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-8050-6087-4.; Elliot, Marianne (2007). The Long Road to Peace in Northern Ireland: Peace Lectures from the Institute of Irish Studies at Liverpool University. University of Liverpool Institute of Irish Studies, Liverpool University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-84631-065-2.
- ^ Dorey, Peter (1995). British politics since 1945. Making contemporary Britain. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 164–223. ISBN 978-0-631-19075-2.
- ^ Griffiths, Alan; Wall, Stuart (2007). Applied Economics (PDF) (11th ed.). Harlow: Financial Times Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-273-70822-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 August 2009. Retrieved 26 December 2010.
- ^ – via Wikisource.
- ^ Keating, Michael (1 January 1998). "Reforging the Union: Devolution and Constitutional Change in the United Kingdom". Publius: The Journal of Federalism. 28 (1): 217–234. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a029948.
- ^ McCourt, David (2014). Britain and World Power Since 1945: Constructing a Nation's Role in International Politics. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-07221-7. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 21 October 2020.
- ^ McSmith, Andy (5 July 2016). "The inside story of how Tony Blair led Britain to war in Iraq". Independent. London. Archived from the original on 4 July 2016. Retrieved 17 February 2022.
- ^ Adams, Tim (11 February 2023). "'A beautiful outpouring of rage': did Britain's biggest ever protest change the world?". The Observer. London. Archived from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 5 June 2023.
- ^ "Quarterly National Accounts – National accounts aggregates (ABMI Gross Domestic Product: chained volume measures: Seasonally adjusted £m, constant prices)". Office for National Statistics. 20 December 2013. Archived from the original on 29 September 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
- ^ "What is austerity and where could 'eye-watering' cuts fall now?". BBC News. 7 November 2022. Archived from the original on 28 July 2023. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
- ^ Butler, Patrick (4 October 2022). "Over 330,000 excess deaths in Great Britain linked to austerity, finds study". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 28 July 2023. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
- ^ Mueller, Benjamin (25 February 2019). "What Is Austerity and How Has It Affected British Society?". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 15 September 2020. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
- ^ "Scottish independence referendum – Results". BBC News. Archived from the original on 18 September 2014. Retrieved 18 February 2022.
- ^ Witte, Griff; Adam, Karla; Balz, Dan (24 June 2016). "In stunning decision, Britain votes to leave the E.U." The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 30 November 2022. Retrieved 24 June 2016.
- ^ "Brexit: New era for UK as it completes separation from European Union". BBC News. 1 January 2021. Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 18 February 2022.
- ^ "The EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement". Archived from the original on 25 March 2023. Retrieved 25 March 2023.
- ^ "Coronavirus (COVID-19) in the UK". gov.uk. Government of the United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 14 April 2020. Retrieved 15 April 2020.
- ^ "Coronavirus and the impact on output in the UK economy: April 2020". ons.gov.uk. Government of the United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
- ^ Walker, Andrew (10 June 2020). "Coronavirus: UK economy could be among worst hit of leading nations, says OECD". BBC News. Archived from the original on 18 August 2020. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
- ^ "Landmark moment as first NHS patient receives COVID-19 vaccination". NHS. Archived from the original on 25 February 2023.
- ^ "Oxford University/AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine approved". UK Government. Archived from the original on 25 February 2023.
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary: "British Isles: a geographical term for the islands comprising Great Britain and Ireland with all their offshore islands including the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands."
- ^ a b c d e "United Kingdom". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 23 September 2008.
- ^ ROG Learning Team (23 August 2002). "The Prime Meridian at Greenwich". Royal Museums Greenwich. Archived from the original on 7 November 2015. Retrieved 11 September 2012.
- ^ "Greenwich Royal Observatory: How the Prime Meridian line is actually 100 metres away from where it was believed to be". Independent. London. 13 August 2015. Archived from the original on 23 March 2019. Retrieved 13 December 2018.
- ^ a b Darkes, Giles (January 2008). "How long is the UK coastline?". The British Cartographic Society. Archived from the original on 22 May 2012. Retrieved 24 January 2015.
- ^ Weiner, Sophie (3 March 2018). "Why it's Impossible to Accurately Measure a Coastline". Popular Mechanics. Archived from the original on 29 June 2024. Retrieved 29 June 2024.
- ^ "The Channel Tunnel". Eurotunnel. Archived from the original on 18 December 2010. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- ^ Dinerstein, Eric; et al. (2017). "An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm". BioScience. 67 (6): 534–545. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix014. ISSN 0006-3568. PMC 5451287. PMID 28608869.
- ^ "Woodland Statistics, Key findings". Archived from the original on 2 August 2023. Retrieved 8 July 2023.
- ^ "Hottest day of each year from 1900". trevorharley.com. Archived from the original on 16 June 2023. Retrieved 23 November 2019.; "Coldest day of each year from 1900". trevorharley.com. Archived from the original on 9 July 2023. Retrieved 23 November 2019.
- ^ "English: A map of Köppen climate types in the United Kingdom (SVG version)". 9 August 2016. Archived from the original on 9 July 2023. Retrieved 23 November 2019.
- ^ "Atlantic Ocean Circulation (Gulf Stream)". UK Climate Projections. Met Office. Archived from the original on 17 October 2018. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- ^ "UK 1971–2000 averages". Met Office. Archived from the original on 5 July 2009. Retrieved 4 August 2007.
- ^ "UK temperature, rainfall and sunshine time series". Met Office. Archived from the original on 17 October 2019. Retrieved 31 December 2022.
- ^ Smeeton, George (28 November 2023). "Families hit by £605 food bill as extreme weather and energy crisis bites". Energy & Climate Intelligence Unit. Archived from the original on 16 July 2024. Retrieved 19 July 2024.
- ^ "2022 EPI Results". Environmental Performance Index. 3 June 2020. Archived from the original on 10 June 2023. Retrieved 25 March 2023.
- ^ "UK net zero target". Institute for Government. 20 April 2020. Archived from the original on 20 March 2024. Retrieved 20 March 2024.
- ^ "England – Profile". BBC News. 11 February 2010. Archived from the original on 15 April 2018. Retrieved 9 October 2010.
- ^ a b c Latimer Clarke Corporation Pty Ltd. "United Kingdom – Atlapedia Online". Atlapedia.com. Archived from the original on 21 March 2012. Retrieved 26 October 2010.[better source needed]
- ^ "Scotland Facts". Scotland Online Gateway. Archived from the original on 21 June 2008. Retrieved 16 July 2008.
- ^ Winter, Jon (1 June 2000). "The complete guide to the ... Scottish Islands". Independent. London. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- ^ "Great Britain's tallest mountain is taller". Ordnance Survey. 18 March 2016. Archived from the original on 9 September 2018. Retrieved 9 September 2018.
- ^ "Ben Nevis Weather". Ben Nevis Weather. Archived from the original on 10 May 2012. Retrieved 26 October 2008.
- ^ "Profile: Wales". BBC News. 9 June 2010. Archived from the original on 26 August 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2010.
- ^ "Geography of Northern Ireland". University of Ulster. Archived from the original on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 22 May 2006.
- ^ Stepan, Alfred; Linz, Juan J.; Minoves, Juli F. (2014). "Democratic Parliamentary Monarchies". Journal of Democracy. 25 (2): 35–36. doi:10.1353/jod.2014.0032. ISSN 1086-3214. S2CID 154555066.
- ^ Lewer, Andrew (5 May 2021). "The UK is one of the most centralised advanced democracies – it's time that changed". New Statesman. Archived from the original on 3 July 2023. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
- ^ "Centralisation Nation: Britain's system of local government and its impact on the national economy". Centre for Cities. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
- ^ "Parliamentary Sovereignty". parliament.uk. Archived from the original on 11 August 2021. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
- ^ Polly Botsford (22 September 2022). "Relationship between UK Crown and law in focus as Carolean era begins". International Bar Association. Archived from the original on 6 May 2023. Retrieved 4 July 2023.
- ^ "Interpretation Act 1978 (c. 30, s. 10)". The National Archives. Archived from the original on 30 July 2023. Retrieved 4 July 2023.
- ^ a b "Parliament". parliament.uk. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
- ^ "Royal Assent". parliament.uk. Archived from the original on 16 July 2021. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
- ^ Carter, Sarah. "A Guide To the UK Legal System". University of Kent at Canterbury. Archived from the original on 5 May 2012. Retrieved 16 May 2006.
- ^ See R (Miller) v Prime Minister [2019] UKSC 41 (Parliamentary sovereignty), R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor [2017] UKSC 51 Archived 4 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine, [67] ff (rule of law), R (Animal Defenders International) v Secretary of State for Culture Media and Sport [2008] UKHL 15, [48] (democracy), R v Lyons [2002] UKHL 44 Archived 22 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine, [27] (international law).
- ^ Robert Blackburn (2022). O. Lepsius; A. Nußberger; C. Schönberger; C. Waldhoff & C. Walter (eds.). "The Constitutional Role and Working of the Monarchy in the United Kingdom". Jahrbuch des Öffentlichen Rechts der Gegenwart. Neue Folge. 70. Mohr Siebeck (published 2 June 2022): 181–201. doi:10.1628/joer-2022-0009. S2CID 257830288. Archived from the original on 19 June 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2023.
- ^ Bagehot, Walter (1867). The English Constitution. London: Chapman and Hall. p. 103.
- ^ David Torrance (11 January 2023). "The Crown and the Constitution" (PDF). House of Commons Library. p. 22. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 March 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2023.
- ^ a b "General elections". parliament.uk. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
- ^ Raymond, C (2016). "Why British Politics is Not a Two-Party System" (PDF). Queen's University Belfast. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 July 2023. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
- ^ "The Government, Prime Minister and Cabinet". Public services all in one place. Directgov. Archived from the original on 21 September 2012. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ Tim Durrant (25 March 2020). "Cabinet". Institute for Government. Archived from the original on 4 July 2023. Retrieved 4 July 2023.
- ^ "Parliament and Government". UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 4 July 2023. Retrieved 4 July 2023.
- ^ Vernon Bogdanor (1995). The Monarchy and the Constitution, Chapter 3 – The Basic Constitutional Rules: Influence and the Prerogative. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-829334-7. Retrieved 4 July 2023.
- ^ Blick, Andrew; Jones, George (1 January 2012). "The Institution of Prime Minister – History of government". gov.uk. Archived from the original on 21 July 2021. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
- ^ Brown, Jack (2020). Dale, Iain (ed.). The Prime Ministers. Hodder & Stoughton. p. 303. ISBN 978-1-5293-1214-0.
- ^ "Minister for the Civil Service". gov.uk. Archived from the original on 2 September 2017. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
- ^ Woodcock, Andrew (26 July 2021). "Boris Johnson accused of 'cynical rebranding' after appointing himself 'Minister for the Union'". Independent. Archived from the original on 27 July 2019. Retrieved 19 July 2021.; "Minister for the Union". gov.uk. Archived from the original on 19 July 2020. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
- ^ "The Cabinet Manual" (PDF). gov.uk. October 2011. p. 7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 April 2018. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
- ^ "The Cabinet Manual" (PDF). gov.uk. October 2011. p. 21. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 April 2018. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
- ^ Norton, Philip (2020). Governing Britain: Parliament, Ministers and Our Ambiguous Constitution. Manchester University Press. p. 130. ISBN 978-1-5261-4545-1.
- ^ Palan, Rolen (2015). "The second British Empire and the re-emergence of global finance". In Palan, Rolen; Halperin, Sandra (eds.). Legacies of Empire: Imperial Roots of the Contemporary Global Order. Cambridge University Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-107-10946-9. Archived from the original on 2 October 2024. Retrieved 13 April 2024.
- ^ Hackwood Frederick William: The Story of the Shire, Being the Lore, History and Evolution of English County Institutions (1851)
- ^ United Nations Economic and Social Council (August 2007). "Ninth UN Conference on the standardization of Geographical Names" (PDF). UN Statistics Division. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 December 2009. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
- ^ Barlow, I.M. (1991). Metropolitan Government. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-02099-2.
- ^ "Welcome to the national site of the Government Office Network". Government Offices. Archived from the original on 6 June 2009. Retrieved 3 July 2008.
- ^ "A short history of London government". Greater London Authority. Archived from the original on 21 April 2008. Retrieved 4 October 2008.
- ^ a b "STV in Scotland: Local Government Elections 2007" (PDF). Political Studies Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 February 2011. Retrieved 2 August 2008.
- ^ a b "Unitary authorities". Welsh Government. 2014. Archived from the original on 10 March 2015. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ a b Devenport, Mark (18 November 2005). "NI local government set for shake-up". BBC News. Archived from the original on 12 December 2008. Retrieved 15 November 2008.
- ^ "Foster announces the future shape of local government" (Press release). Northern Ireland Executive. 13 March 2008. Archived from the original on 25 July 2008. Retrieved 20 October 2008.
- ^ Le Sueur, Andrew; Sunkin, Maurice; Murkens, Jo Eric Khushal (2023). Public Law: Text, Cases, and Materials (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-19-287061-2. Archived from the original on 2 October 2024. Retrieved 13 April 2024.
- ^ Burrows, N. (1999). "Unfinished Business: The Scotland Act 1998". The Modern Law Review. 62 (2): 241–260 [p. 249]. doi:10.1111/1468-2230.00203.
The UK Parliament is sovereign and the Scottish Parliament is subordinate. The White Paper had indicated that this was to be the approach taken in the legislation. The Scottish Parliament is not to be seen as a reflection of the settled will of the people of Scotland or of popular sovereignty but as a reflection of its subordination to a higher legal authority. Following the logic of this argument, the power of the Scottish Parliament to legislate can be withdrawn or overridden...
; Elliot, M. (2004). "United Kingdom: Parliamentary sovereignty under pressure". International Journal of Constitutional Law. 2 (3): 545–627, 553–554. doi:10.1093/icon/2.3.545.Notwithstanding substantial differences among the schemes, an important common factor is that the UK Parliament has not renounced legislative sovereignty in relation to the three nations concerned. For example, the Scottish Parliament is empowered to enact primary legislation on all matters, save those in relation to which competence is explicitly denied ... but this power to legislate on what may be termed "devolved matters" is concurrent with the Westminster Parliament's general power to legislate for Scotland on any matter at all, including devolved matters ... In theory, therefore, Westminster may legislate on Scottish devolved matters whenever it chooses...
- ^ "Scotland Act 2016". Gov.uk. Archived from the original on 28 June 2024. Retrieved 28 June 2024.
- ^ "Wales Act 2017". Archived from the original on 2 October 2024. Retrieved 13 July 2024.
- ^ Gamble, A. (2006). "The Constitutional Revolution in the United Kingdom". Publius. 36 (1): 19–35 [p. 29]. doi:10.1093/publius/pjj011.
The British parliament has the power to abolish the Scottish parliament and the Welsh assembly by a simple majority vote in both houses, but since both were sanctioned by referenda, it would be politically difficult to abolish them without the sanction of a further vote by the people. In this way, several of the constitutional measures introduced by the Blair government appear to be entrenched and not subject to a simple exercise of parliamentary sovereignty at Westminster.
- ^ Meehan, E. (1999). "The Belfast Agreement – Its Distinctiveness and Points of Cross-Fertilization in the UK's Devolution Programme". Parliamentary Affairs. 52 (1): 19–31 [p. 23]. doi:10.1093/pa/52.1.19.
[T]he distinctive involvement of two governments in the Northern Irish problem means that Northern Ireland's new arrangements rest upon an intergovernmental agreement. If this can be equated with a treaty, it could be argued that the forthcoming distribution of power between Westminster and Belfast has similarities with divisions specified in the written constitutions of federal states...Although the Agreement makes the general proviso that Westminster's 'powers to make legislation for Northern Ireland' remains 'unaffected', without an explicit categorical reference to reserved matters, it may be more difficult than in Scotland or Wales for devolved powers to be repatriated. The retraction of devolved powers would not merely entail consultation in Northern Ireland backed implicitly by the absolute power of parliamentary sovereignty but also the renegotiation of an intergovernmental agreement.
- ^ a b [216][217][218][219][220][221][222]
- ^ "English devolution". Institute for Government. 21 June 2024. Archived from the original on 30 August 2024. Retrieved 30 August 2024.
- ^ "Devolution explained". Local Government Association. Archived from the original on 30 August 2024. Retrieved 30 August 2024.
- ^ "English devolution". Institute for Government. 6 March 2023. Archived from the original on 2 October 2024. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
- ^ "Combined County Authorities – key differences to Combined Authorities". Local Government Lawyer. 6 April 2023. Archived from the original on 4 February 2024. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
- ^ "Devolved and Reserved Powers". parliament.scot. Archived from the original on 20 September 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
- ^ "Scotland's Parliament – powers and structures". BBC News. 8 April 1999. Archived from the original on 18 February 2007. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
- ^ Keating, Michael (2 February 2021). "Taking back control? Brexit and the territorial constitution of the United Kingdom". Journal of European Public Policy. 28 (4). Abingdon: Taylor & Francis: 6–7. doi:10.1080/13501763.2021.1876156. hdl:1814/70296. S2CID 234066376.
The UK Internal Market Act gives ministers sweeping powers to enforce mutual recognition and non-discrimination across the four jurisdictions. Existing differences and some social and health matters are exempted but these are much less extensive than the exemptions permitted under the EU Internal Market provisions. Only after an amendment in the House of Lords, the Bill was amended to provide a weak and non-binding consent mechanism for amendments (equivalent to the Sewel Convention) to the list of exemptions. The result is that, while the devolved governments retain regulatory competences, these are undermined by the fact that goods and services originating in, or imported into, England can be marketed anywhere.
- ^ Kenny, Michael; McEwen, Nicola (1 March 2021). "Intergovernmental Relations and the Crisis of the Union". Political Insight. 12 (1). SAGE Publishing: 12–15. doi:10.1177/20419058211000996. S2CID 232050477.
That phase of joint working was significantly damaged by the UK Internal Market Act, pushed through by the Johnson government in December 2020...the Act diminishes the authority of the devolved institutions, and was vehemently opposed by them.
- ^ Wolffe, W James (7 April 2021). "Devolution and the Statute Book". Statute Law Review. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/slr/hmab003. Archived from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
the Internal Market Bill—a Bill that contains provisions which, if enacted, would significantly constrain, both legally and as a matter of practicality, the exercise by the devolved legislatures of their legislative competence; provisions that would be significantly more restrictive of the powers of the Scottish Parliament than either EU law or Articles 4 and 6 of the Acts of the Union...The UK Parliament passed the European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 and the Internal Market Act 2020 notwithstanding that, in each case, all three of the devolved legislatures had withheld consent.
- ^ Wincott, Daniel; Murray, C. R. G.; Davies, Gregory (17 May 2021). "The Anglo-British imaginary and the rebuilding of the UK's territorial constitution after Brexit: unitary state or union state?". Territory, Politics, Governance. 10 (5). Abingdon/Brighton: Taylor & Francis; Regional Studies Association: 696–713. doi:10.1080/21622671.2021.1921613.
Taken as a whole, the Internal Market Act imposes greater restrictions upon the competences of the devolved institutions than the provisions of the EU Single Market which it replaced, in spite of pledges to use common frameworks to address these issues. Lord Hope, responsible for many of the leading judgments relating to the first two decades of devolution, regarded the legislation's terms as deliberately confrontational: 'this Parliament can do what it likes, but a different approach is essential if the union is to hold together'.
- ^ Dougan, Michael; Hayward, Katy; Hunt, Jo; McEwen, Nicola; McHarg, Aileen; Wincott, Daniel (2020). UK and the Internal Market, Devolution and the Union. Centre on Constitutional Change (Report). University of Edinburgh; University of Aberdeen. pp. 2–3. Archived from the original on 18 October 2020. Retrieved 16 October 2020.
- ^ Dougan, Michael (2020). Briefing Paper. United Kingdom Internal Market Bill: Implications for Devolution (PDF) (Report). Liverpool: University of Liverpool. pp. 4–5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 October 2020. Retrieved 15 October 2020.
- ^ Dougan, Michael; Hunt, Jo; McEwen, Nicola; McHarg, Aileen (2022). "Sleeping with an Elephant: Devolution and the United Kingdom Internal Market Act 2020". Law Quarterly Review. London: Sweet & Maxwell. ISSN 0023-933X. SSRN 4018581. Archived from the original on 2 August 2022. Retrieved 4 March 2022 – via Durham Research Online.
The Act has restrictive – and potentially damaging – consequences for the regulatory capacity of the devolved legislatures...This was not the first time since the Brexit referendum that the Convention had been set aside, but it was especially notable given that the primary purpose of the legislation was to constrain the capacity of the devolved institutions to use their regulatory autonomy...in practice, it constrains the ability of the devolved institutions to make effective regulatory choices for their territories in ways that do not apply to the choices made by the UK government and parliament for the English market.
- ^ "Humza Yousaf's precarious position puts the SNP – and Scotland – at a crossroads". Institute for Government. 26 April 2024. Archived from the original on 26 April 2024. Retrieved 26 April 2024.
- ^ "What the Scottish Government does". gov.scot. Archived from the original on 8 July 2019. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
- ^ "Structure and powers of the Assembly". BBC News. 9 April 1999. Archived from the original on 7 February 2004. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
- ^ "Good Friday Agreement: What is it?". BBC News. 3 April 2023. Archived from the original on 15 May 2024. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
- ^ "Devolution of powers to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland". GOV.UK. 8 May 2019. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 11 June 2024.
- ^ "Your Executive". Northern Ireland Executive. 25 September 2015. Archived from the original on 21 August 2016. Retrieved 14 August 2016.
- ^ "Stormont: Why were NI leaders given unequal job titles?". BBC News. 15 May 2022. Archived from the original on 2 February 2024. Retrieved 2 February 2024.
- ^ "Northern Ireland Executive: Ministerial Code". 28 September 2015. Archived from the original on 2 February 2024. Retrieved 2 February 2024.
- ^ May, Theresa (29 March 2017). "Prime Minister's letter to Donald Tusk triggering Article 50". Archived from the original on 5 June 2017. Retrieved 19 June 2017 – via Gov.uk.
- ^ Swaine, Jon (13 January 2009). "Barack Obama presidency will strengthen special relationship, says Gordon Brown". The Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 4 July 2020. Retrieved 30 May 2011.
- ^ Kirchner, Emil Joseph; Sperling, James (2007). Global Security Governance: Competing Perceptions of Security in the 21st century (illustrated ed.). London: Routledge. p. 100. ISBN 978-0-415-39162-7.
- ^ The Committee Office, House of Commons (19 February 2009). "DFID's expenditure on development assistance". UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 12 January 2013. Retrieved 28 April 2013.
- ^ "Sharp Drop in World Views of US, UK: Global Poll – GlobeScan". 4 July 2017. Archived from the original on 3 January 2019. Retrieved 5 December 2018.; "From the Outside In: G20 views of the UK before and after the EU referendum'" (PDF). British Council. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 November 2017. Retrieved 5 December 2018.; "New Zealand is Britons' favourite country". 26 October 2020. Archived from the original on 5 December 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
- ^ "The Treaty (act) of the Union of Parliament 1706". Scottish History Online. Archived from the original on 27 May 2019. Retrieved 5 October 2008.
- ^ "UK Supreme Court judges sworn in". BBC News. 1 October 2009. Archived from the original on 7 February 2020. Retrieved 6 October 2009.; "Constitutional reform: A Supreme Court for the United Kingdom" (PDF). Department for Constitutional Affairs. July 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 January 2009. Retrieved 13 May 2013.
- ^ "Role of the JCPC". Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Archived from the original on 14 January 2014. Retrieved 28 April 2013.
- ^ Bainham, Andrew (1998). The international survey of family law: 1996. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. p. 298. ISBN 978-90-411-0573-8. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- ^ "Common Law". Britannica. 19 May 2024. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 27 May 2024.
- ^ "The Australian courts and comparative law". Australian Law Postgraduate Network. Archived from the original on 14 April 2013. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ "Court of Session – Introduction". Scottish Courts. Archived from the original on 31 July 2008. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- ^ "High Court of Justiciary – Introduction". Scottish Courts. Archived from the original on 12 September 2008. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ "House of Lords – Practice Directions and Standing Orders Applicable to Civil Appeals". UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 6 December 2013. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
- ^ "Crime in England and Wales, Year Ending June 2015" (PDF). UK Government Web Archive. Office for National Statistics. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 March 2023. Retrieved 16 March 2023.
- ^ Sturge, Georgina. "UK Prison Population Statistics" (PDF). House of Commons Library. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 February 2020. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
- ^ "Highest to Lowest - Prison Population Total". World Prison Brief. Archived from the original on 18 November 2023.
- ^ "World Prison Brief data". World Prison Brief. Archived from the original on 6 November 2023.
- ^ Wratten, Marcus (3 July 2023). "Tom Allen to host vital new BBC show marking 10th anniversary of same-sex marriage". PinkNews. Archived from the original on 2 September 2023. Retrieved 2 September 2023.
- ^ "The 203 Worst (& Safest) Countries for LGBTQ+ Travel in 2023". Asher & Lyric. 5 June 2023. Archived from the original on 10 September 2021. Retrieved 20 August 2023.
- ^ R. Flores, Andrew. "Social Acceptance of LGBTI People in 175 Countries and Locations". Williams Institute. Archived from the original on 13 September 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2023.
- ^ "Ministry of Defence". Ministry of Defence. Archived from the original on 19 February 2012. Retrieved 21 February 2012.
- ^ "Speaker addresses Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II". UK Parliament. 30 March 2012. Archived from the original on 1 May 2013. Retrieved 28 April 2013.
- ^ "House of Commons Hansard". UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 9 March 2009. Retrieved 23 October 2008.; "House of Commons Hansard Written Answers for 17 Jun 2013 (pt 0002)". Publications.parliament.uk. Archived from the original on 14 February 2015. Retrieved 4 March 2015.
- ^ "2024 Global Peace Index" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 August 2024. Retrieved 13 August 2024.
- ^ "Rishi Sunak vows to boost UK defence spending to 2.5% of GDP by 2030". BBC News. 24 April 2024. Archived from the original on 23 April 2024. Retrieved 24 April 2024.
- ^ UK 2005: The Official Yearbook of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Office for National Statistics. p. 89.
- ^ Florida, Richard (16 March 2017). "The Economic Power of Cities Compared to Nations". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 8 March 2024. Retrieved 22 February 2024.
- ^ "The World According to GaWC 2020". GaWC. Loughborough University. 21 August 2020. Archived from the original on 12 June 2022. Retrieved 3 June 2023.
- ^ "Principles for Economic Regulation". Department for Business, Innovation & Skills. April 2011. Archived from the original on 17 May 2011. Retrieved 1 May 2011.
- ^ Thane, Pat (2019). "The Origins of the British Welfare State". The Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 50 (3): 427–433. doi:10.1162/jinh_a_01448. S2CID 208223636.
- ^ Griffiths, Alan; Wall, Stuart (16 July 2011). "Applied Economics" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
- ^ "World Currency Composition of Official Foreign Exchange Reserves". IMF Data. Archived from the original on 12 May 2016. Retrieved 10 October 2021.
- ^ "Sterling steady but set for 5% rally in 2023". Reuters.
- ^ "Nikkei Asia - Currency". Archived from the original on 23 January 2024. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
- ^ "BIS Triennial Survey of Foreign Exchange and Over-The-Counter Interest Rate Derivatives Markets in April 2022 – UK Data". Bank of England. 27 October 2022. Archived from the original on 21 February 2023. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
- ^ Jones, Marc; John, Alun (27 October 2022). "Global FX trading hits record $7.5 trln a day – BIS survey". Reuters. Archived from the original on 21 February 2023. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
- ^ Frank-Keyes, Jessica (9 April 2024). "Services trade sees UK become world's fourth largest exporter". City A.M. London. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
- ^ "United Kingdom: 2023 Article IV Consultation" (Press release). IMF. 11 July 2023. Archived from the original on 9 March 2024. Retrieved 9 March 2024.
- ^ "2021 Article IV Consultation" (Press release). IMF. February 2022. Archived from the original on 9 March 2024. Retrieved 9 March 2024.
- ^ "Sterling Exchange Rates". Bank of England. Archived from the original on 9 March 2024. Retrieved 9 March 2024.
- ^ "Real GDP growth". OBR. Archived from the original on 9 March 2024. Retrieved 9 March 2024.;"Real Gross Domestic Product (Real GDP): How to Calculate It, vs. Nominal". Investopedia. Archived from the original on 5 February 2005. Retrieved 9 March 2024.
- ^ "Inflation and the 2% target". Bank of England. 21 March 2024. Archived from the original on 13 December 2017. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
- ^ "UK inflation rate: How quickly are prices rising?". BBC News. 14 January 2011. Archived from the original on 3 July 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
- ^ Hutton, Georgina (6 December 2022). "Industries in the UK". UK Parliament: House of Commons Library. Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 31 January 2023.
- ^ "Service exports (BoP, current US$)". World Bank Open Data. Archived from the original on 26 May 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
- ^ "Global city GDP rankings 2008–2025". PricewaterhouseCoopers. 2009. Archived from the original on 28 April 2011. Retrieved 16 November 2010.
- ^ "GFCI 27 Rank". Long Finance. Archived from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2020.
- ^ Coffey, Helen (19 January 2022). "London named Europe's most popular destination for 2022". Independent.co.uk. Archived from the original on 11 March 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
- ^ Chan, Kelvin (25 April 2023). "King Charles' coronation is bringing millions of tourists and a cash infusion to London but it probably won't save the British economy". fortune.com. The Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
- ^ "DCMS Economic Estimates 2019 (provisional): Gross Value Added". gov.uk. Archived from the original on 31 January 2023. Retrieved 31 January 2023.
- ^ "UK's Creative Industries contributes almost £13 million to the UK economy every hour". UK Government. 2020. Archived from the original on 21 February 2023. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
- ^ "Lloyd's of London – value proposition". Lloyd's of London. Archived from the original on 27 February 2023.
- ^ "Retail". great.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 18 January 2024.
- ^ "Households and NPISHs Final consumption expenditure (current US$)". World Bank Group. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 17 August 2024.
- ^ "Employee owned businesses - What the evidence tells us". Archived from the original on 2 December 2023. Retrieved 18 January 2024.
- ^ a b "UK Automotive". The Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders. Archived from the original on 13 November 2023. Retrieved 14 November 2023.
- ^ "December 2023 UK Car Manufacturing". SMMT. 24 January 2024. Archived from the original on 16 March 2024. Retrieved 16 March 2024.
- ^ "Best British cars: Top 50 all-time greatest British-built cars revealed - page 2". Auto Express. 19 November 2020. Archived from the original on 16 March 2024. Retrieved 9 March 2024.
- ^ "Combustion Engines". OEC - The Observatory of Economic Complexity. Archived from the original on 3 October 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2023.
- ^ "UK motorsport industry in pole position for F1's 70th anniversary". UK Government. 2020. Archived from the original on 19 February 2023. Retrieved 19 February 2023.
- ^ Tovey, Alan (29 June 2016). "Britain's aerospace sector soars amid fears Brexit could clip its wings". The Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022.
- ^ "Size & Health of the UK Space Industry 2022 Summary Report". UK Government. 2022. Archived from the original on 31 March 2023. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
- ^ "Size and Health of the UK Space Industry 2021". UK Government. 2021. Archived from the original on 21 February 2023. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
- ^ "New funding to support space exploration using Moon resources and nuclear power". Archived from the original on 11 March 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
- ^ "UK Food Security Index 2024". Department for the Environment Food & Rural Affairs. Archived from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 19 May 2024.;"Agricultural workforce in England at 1 June 2023". Department for the Environment Food & Rural Affairs. Archived from the original on 19 May 2024. Retrieved 19 May 2024.
- ^ "Coal". BGS Minerals UK. Archived from the original on 26 April 2009. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
- ^ "House of Commons Research Briefing on Income inequality in the UK". UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 10 February 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2023.
- ^ "Inequality – Income inequality – OECD Data". theOECD. Archived from the original on 29 June 2023. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
- ^ a b WIPO (2022). Global Innovation Index 2022, 15th Edition. World Intellectual Property Organization. doi:10.34667/tind.46596. ISBN 978-92-805-3432-0. Archived from the original on 3 December 2022. Retrieved 16 November 2022.; "Global Innovation Index 2021". World Intellectual Property Organization. United Nations. Archived from the original on 5 March 2022. Retrieved 5 March 2022.; "Release of the Global Innovation Index 2020: Who Will Finance Innovation?". World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from the original on 3 June 2021. Retrieved 2 September 2021.; "Global Innovation Index 2019". World Intellectual Property Organization. Archived from the original on 2 September 2021. Retrieved 2 September 2021.; "RTD – Item". ec.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 2 September 2021. Retrieved 2 September 2021.
- ^ Gascoin, J. "A reappraisal of the role of the universities in the Scientific Revolution", in Lindberg, David C. and Westman, Robert S., eds (1990), Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution. Cambridge University Press. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-521-34804-1.
- ^ Reynolds, E.E.; Brasher, N.H. (1966). Britain in the Twentieth Century, 1900–1964. Cambridge University Press. p. 336. OCLC 474197910
- ^ Burtt, E.A. (2003) 1924.The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science Archived 26 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Mineola, NY: Courier Dover. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-486-42551-1.
- ^ Hatt, C. (2006). Scientists and Their Discoveries Archived 26 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine. London: Evans Brothers. pp. 16, 30 and 46. ISBN 978-0-237-53195-9.
- ^ Castells, M.; Hall, P.; Hall, P.G. (2004). Technopoles of the World: the Making of Twenty-First-Century Industrial Complexes. London: Routledge. pp. 98–100. ISBN 978-0-415-10015-1.
- ^ "London Has Officially Become the Technology Capital of Europe". BrainStation. 21 July 2021. Archived from the original on 7 October 2021. Retrieved 10 July 2023.
- ^ World Intellectual Property Organization (2024). "Global Innovation Index 2024. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship" (PDF). www.wipo.int. Geneva. p. 18. doi:10.34667/tind.50062. ISBN 978-92-805-3681-2. Retrieved 1 October 2024.
- ^ "International comparison of the UK research base, 2022" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2023. (last checked 11 March 2023)
- ^ McCook, Alison (2006). "Is peer review broken?". The Scientist. 20 (2): 26. Archived from the original on 16 August 2011. Retrieved 22 June 2011.
- ^ Moran, Joe (16 November 2005). Reading the Everyday. Routledge. p. 95. ISBN 978-1-134-37216-4.
- ^ Wilkinson, Freddie. "RAC foundation traffic stats". Archived from the original on 24 February 2023. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
- ^ Sylvain Duranton; Agnès Audier; Joël Hazan; Mads Peter Langhorn; Vincent Gauche (18 April 2017). "The 2017 European Railway Performance Index". Boston Consulting Group. Archived from the original on 31 May 2020. Retrieved 4 February 2019.
- ^ "London to Paris Trains". Eurostar. Archived from the original on 11 May 2024. Retrieved 11 May 2024.
- ^ "Channel Tunnel, Tunnel, Europe". Britannica. 10 May 2024. Retrieved 11 May 2024.
- ^ "Crossrail's giant tunnelling machines unveiled". BBC News. 2 January 2012. Archived from the original on 10 April 2016. Retrieved 20 June 2018.; Leftly, Mark (29 August 2010). "Crossrail delayed to save £1bn". Independent. London. Archived from the original on 16 November 2020. Retrieved 22 August 2017.
- ^ "Crossrail to become the Elizabeth line in honour of Her Majesty the Queen". Transport for London. Archived from the original on 25 February 2023.
- ^ "What is HS2". HS2. Archived from the original on 21 June 2022. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
- ^ "HS2 Trains". HS2. Archived from the original on 24 February 2023. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
- ^ "Bus statistics". GOV.UK. 26 April 2023.
- ^ "Our Collection". icons.org.uk. Retrieved 16 August 2014.
- ^ London Buses, Transport for London. Accessed 10 May 2007.
- ^ a b "Size of Reporting Airports 2023". Civil Aviation Authority. Retrieved 9 May 2024.
- ^ "Heathrow 'needs a third runway'". BBC News. 25 June 2008. Retrieved 17 October 2008.; "Statistics: Top 30 World airports" (PDF) (Press release). Airports Council International. July 2008. Retrieved 15 October 2008.
- ^ "BMI being taken over by Lufthansa". BBC News. 29 October 2008. Retrieved 23 December 2009.
- ^ a b "United Kingdom Energy Profile". U.S. Energy Information Administration. Archived from the original on 28 February 2023. Retrieved 28 February 2023.
- ^ Mason, Rowena (24 October 2009). "Let the battle begin over black gold". The Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 26 November 2010.; Heath, Michael (26 November 2010). "RBA Says Currency Containing Prices, Rate Level 'Appropriate' in Near Term". Bloomberg. New York. Archived from the original on 22 July 2012. Retrieved 26 November 2010.
- ^ "How much of our energy currently comes from renewable sources?". National Grid. 14 June 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2023.
- ^ "Britain produced record amount of wind power in 2022, National Grid says". Reuters. 6 January 2023. Retrieved 8 May 2023.
- ^ "Wind energy in the UK: June 2021". UK Government. 14 June 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2023.
- ^ a b c "Nuclear Power in the United Kingdom". World Nuclear Association. Archived from the original on 28 February 2023. Retrieved 28 February 2023.
- ^ "Nuclear Power in the United Kingdom". World Nuclear Association. April 2013. Archived from the original on 14 February 2013. Retrieved 9 April 2013.
- ^ "Nuclear energy: What you need to know". UK Government. Archived from the original on 28 February 2023. Retrieved 28 February 2023.
- ^ "UKAEA implementing the UK's fusion energy strategy". Open Access Government. Retrieved 27 May 2024.;"UK nuclear fusion reactor sets new world record for energy output". New Scientist. Retrieved 27 May 2024.
- ^ a b "United Kingdom – Oil". U.S. Energy Information Administration. Archived from the original on 12 August 2011. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ a b "United Kingdom – Natural Gas". U.S. Energy Information Administration. Archived from the original on 16 April 2011. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ "Coal Reserves in the United Kingdom" (PDF). The Coal Authority. 10 April 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 January 2009. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ "Expert predicts 'coal revolution'". BBC News. 16 October 2007. Retrieved 23 September 2008.
- ^ "Sewage Treatment in the UK" (PDF). assets.publishing.service.gov.uk. DEFRA. March 2022. p. 3. PB 6655. Retrieved 8 April 2023.
- ^ "Environment Agency". Archived from the original on 25 November 2009.
- ^ "About Us". niwater.com. Retrieved 29 August 2020.
- ^ a b c "2011 Census: Population Estimates for the United Kingdom" (PDF). Office for National Statistics. 27 March 2011. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
- ^ a b "Population Estimates for UK, England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, Mid-2015". Office for National Statistics. 23 June 2016.
- ^ "World Factbook EUROPE: United Kingdom", The World Factbook, 12 July 2018
- ^ "Mid-Year Population Estimates, UK, June 2022". Office for National Statistics. 26 March 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
- ^ a b "2011 UK censuses". Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
- ^ Khan, Urmee (16 September 2008). "England is most crowded country in Europe". The Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 18 September 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
- ^ Carrell, Severin (17 December 2012). "Scotland's population at record high". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
- ^ "Vital statistics: population and health reference tables". Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 6 March 2018.
- ^ Boseley, Sarah (14 July 2008). "The question: What's behind the baby boom?". The Guardian. London. p. 3. Retrieved 28 August 2009.
- ^ Roser, Max (2014), "Total Fertility Rate around the world over the last centuries", Our World in Data, Gapminder Foundation, archived from the original on 5 July 2019, retrieved 10 December 2019
- ^ "Vital Statistics: Population and Health Reference Tables (February 2014 Update): Annual Time Series Data". ONS. Retrieved 27 April 2014.
- ^ Tables, Graphs and Maps Interface (TGM) table. Eurostat (26 February 2013). Retrieved 12 July 2013.
- ^ "Sexual identity, UK: 2015 – Experimental Official Statistics on sexual identity in the UK in 2015 by region, sex, age, marital status, ethnicity and NS-SEC". Office for National Statistics. 5 October 2016. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
- ^ "Research report 27: Trans research review". equalityhumanrights.com. p. v. Archived from the original on 6 July 2015. Retrieved 26 November 2021.
- ^ "2011 Census - Built-up areas". ONS. Retrieved 1 July 2013.
- ^ "NRS – Background Information Settlements and Localities" (PDF). National Records of Scotland. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- ^ The UK's major urban areas Office for National Statistics (Urban area of Belfast and connected settlements, Table 3.1, page 47)
- ^ "Welsh people could be most ancient in UK, DNA suggests". BBC News. 19 June 2012. Retrieved 28 April 2013.
- ^ "Victoria and Albert Museum Black Presence". 13 January 2011.
- ^ Winder, Robert (2010). Bloody Foreigners: The Story of Immigration to Britain. Little, Brown Book. ISBN 978-0-7481-2396-4.; Costello, Ray (2001). Black Liverpool: The Early History of Britain's Oldest Black Community 1730–1918. Liverpool: Picton Press. ISBN 978-1-873245-07-1.
- ^ "Culture and Ethnicity Differences in Liverpool – Chinese Community". Chambré Hardman Trust. Archived from the original on 24 July 2009. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ a b "2011 Census: Ethnic group, local authorities in the United Kingdom". Office for National Statistics. 11 October 2013. Retrieved 6 March 2015.
- ^ "Population size: 7.9 per cent from a non-White ethnic group". Office for National Statistics. 8 January 2004. Archived from the original on 19 June 2004.
- ^ "Table KS201SC – Ethnic group: All people" (PDF). National Records of Scotland. 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 28 April 2015.
- ^ "Ethnic group". Office for National Statistics. 2 November 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2015.
- ^ "Resident population estimates by ethnic group (percentages): London". Office for National Statistics. Archived from the original on 23 June 2012. Retrieved 23 April 2008.; "Resident population estimates by ethnic group (percentages): Leicester". Office for National Statistics. Archived from the original on 5 May 2012. Retrieved 23 April 2008.
- ^ "Census 2001 – Ethnicity and religion in England and Wales". Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 23 April 2008.
- ^ Schools, pupils and their characteristics: January 2016 (PDF) (Report). Department for Education. 28 June 2016. p. 8. SFR 20/2016.
- ^ "English language – Government, citizens and rights". Directgov. Archived from the original on 15 October 2012. Retrieved 23 August 2011.
- ^ Mac Sithigh, Daithí (17 May 2018). "Official status of languages in the UK and Ireland" (PDF). Common Law World Review. 47 (1). Queen's University, Belfast: 77–102. doi:10.1177/1473779518773642. S2CID 219987922.
- ^ British Council "British Council | the UK's international culture and education organisation". Archived from the original on 1 February 2023. Retrieved 5 December 2018. (last checked 6 February 2023)
- ^ "About BBC Learning English". BBC. Archived from the original on 4 February 2023. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
- ^ a b "Languages across Europe: United Kingdom". BBC. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
- ^ Carl Skutsch (2013). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. pp.1261. Routledge. Retrieved 3 December 2020.
- ^ Booth, Robert (30 January 2013). "Polish becomes England's second language". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 4 February 2012.
- ^ "The teenagers who translate for their parents". BBC News. 23 April 2019. Retrieved 23 April 2019.
- ^ Track, Robert Lawrence; Stockwell, Peter (2007). Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts. Routledge. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-415-41358-9. Retrieved 4 August 2019.; "Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, Strasbourg, 1.II.1995". Council of Europe. Retrieved 9 March 2015.; "European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, Strasbourg, 5.XI.1992". Council of Europe. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ "Welsh language in Wales (Census 2021)". gov.wales. 6 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.
- ^ Wynn Thomas, Peter (March 2007). "Welsh today". Voices. BBC. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ "Census 2021: Main statistics for Northern Ireland" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 February 2024. Retrieved 10 February 2024.
- ^ "Scotland's Census 2001 – Gaelic Report". General Register Office for Scotland. Archived from the original on 22 May 2013. Retrieved 28 April 2013.
- ^ "Local UK languages 'taking off'". BBC News. 12 February 2009.
- ^ "Language Data – Scots". European Bureau for Lesser-Used Languages. Archived from the original on 23 June 2007. Retrieved 2 November 2008.
- ^ Brown, Hannah (23 April 2020). "'People are dying because of this': Calls for UK Gov to follow Scotland with sign language interpreter at Covid-19 briefing". The Scotsman. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
- ^ "Religion - Office for National Statistics". ons.gov.uk. Retrieved 29 November 2022.
- ^ Cannon, John, ed. (2nd edn., 2009). A Dictionary of British History. Oxford University Press. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-19-955037-1.
- ^ Field, Clive D. (November 2009). "British religion in numbers". BRIN Discussion Series on Religious Statistics, Discussion Paper 001. Retrieved 7 March 2015.
- ^ Yilmaz, Ihsan (2005). Muslim Laws, Politics and Society in Modern Nation States: Dynamic Legal Pluralisms in England, Turkey, and Pakistan. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. pp. 55–56. ISBN 978-0-7546-4389-0.
- ^ Brown, Callum G. (2006). Religion and Society in Twentieth-Century Britain. Harlow: Pearson Education. p. 291. ISBN 978-0-582-47289-1.
- ^ Norris, Pippa; Inglehart, Ronald (2004). Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide. Cambridge University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-521-83984-6.
- ^ Fergusson, David (2004). Church, State and Civil Society. Cambridge University Press. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-521-52959-4.
- ^ "UK Census 2001". Office for National Statistics. Archived from the original on 12 March 2007. Retrieved 22 April 2007.
- ^ "Religious Populations". Office for National Statistics. 11 October 2004. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011.
- ^ "United Kingdom: New Report Finds Only One in 10 Attend Church". News.adventist.org. 4 April 2007. Archived from the original on 13 December 2011. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ Philby, Charlotte (12 December 2012). "Less religious and more ethnically diverse: Census reveals a picture of Britain today". Independent. London.
- ^ "The percentage of the population with no religion has increased in England and Wales". Office for National Statistics. 4 April 2013.
- ^ "The History of the Church of England". The Church of England. 2004. Archived from the original on 21 February 2010. Retrieved 23 November 2008.
- ^ "Queen and Church of England". British Monarchy Media Centre. Archived from the original on 8 October 2006. Retrieved 5 June 2010.
- ^ "Queen and the Church". The British Monarchy (Official Website). Archived from the original on 5 June 2011.
- ^ "Our structure". churchofscotland.org.uk. 22 February 2010. Archived from the original on 25 January 2020.
- ^ Weller, Paul (2005). Time for a Change: Reconfiguring Religion, State, and Society. London: Continuum. pp. 79–80. ISBN 978-0-567-08487-3.
- ^ Peach, Ceri, "United Kingdom, a major transformation of the religious landscape", in H. Knippenberg. ed. (2005). The Changing Religious Landscape of Europe. Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis. pp. 44–58. ISBN 978-90-5589-248-8.
- ^ "Immigration and births to non-British mothers pushes British population to record high". London Evening Standard. 21 August 2008.
- ^ a b c "Migration: How many people come to the UK and how are the salary rules changing?". BBC News. 23 May 2024.
- ^ "Births in England and Wales: 2014". Office for National Statistics. 15 July 2015.
- ^ Travis, Alan (25 August 2011). "UK net migration rises 21 per cent". The Guardian. London.
- ^ a b Blinder, Scott (27 March 2015). "Naturalisation as a British Citizen: Concepts and Trends" (PDF). The Migration Observatory, University of Oxford. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 September 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2015.
- ^ Blinder, Scott (11 June 2014). "Settlement in the UK". The Migration Observatory, University of Oxford. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2015.
- ^ "Net migration drops to 685,000 after hitting record levels, as even more arrived in UK last year than previously thought". LBC. 23 May 2024.
- ^ Richards (2004), pp. 6–7.
- ^ a b Sriskandarajah, Dhananjayan; Drew, Catherine (11 December 2006). "Brits Abroad: Mapping the scale and nature of British emigration". Institute for Public Policy Research. Archived from the original on 28 August 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ "Brits Abroad: world overview". BBC. Retrieved 20 April 2007.; Casciani, Dominic (11 December 2006). "5.5 m Britons 'opt to live abroad'". BBC News. Retrieved 20 April 2007.
- ^ "Brits Abroad: Country-by-country". BBC News. 11 December 2006.
- ^ "The Most Educated Countries in the World". Yahoo Finance. 24 September 2012. Archived from the original on 4 February 2016. Retrieved 20 April 2016.; "And the World's Most Educated Country Is…". Time. New York. 27 September 2012. Retrieved 20 April 2016.
- ^ "The Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2024". 25 September 2023. Retrieved 17 April 2024.
- ^ "QS World University Rankings 2024". Retrieved 17 April 2024.
- ^ "Undergraduate Tuition Fess and Student Loans". UCAS. 20 October 2014. Retrieved 24 February 2024.
- ^ "More undergraduate medical education places". gov.uk. Retrieved 24 February 2024.
- ^ "PISA 2022 Results". Data Pandas. Retrieved 24 February 2024.
- ^ "PISA 2022 UK Results". OECD. 4 December 2023. Retrieved 24 February 2024.
- ^ Gill, Martha (9 July 2023). "To those who claim the NHS has turned into a British religion, I say: keep the faith". The Observer. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
- ^ "Is the NHS our new national religion? – Religion Media Centre". religionmediacentre.org.uk. 14 April 2020. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
- ^ Haden, Angela; Campanini, Barbara, eds. (2000). The world health report 2000 – Health systems: improving performance. Geneva: World Health Organization. ISBN 978-92-4-156198-3. Retrieved 5 July 2011.; World Health Organization. "Measuring overall health system performance for 191 countries" (PDF). New York University. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ Fisher, Peter. "The NHS from Thatcher to Blair". NHS Consultants Association. Archived from the original on 20 November 2018. Retrieved 19 December 2018.
The Budget ... was even more generous to the NHS than had been expected amounting to an annual rise of 7.4 per cent above the rate of inflation for the next five years. This would take us to 9.4 per cent of GDP spent on health ie around EU average.
- ^ "Swindells: They aren't 'your' patients". Health Service Journal. 24 September 2019. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
- ^ "How does UK healthcare spending compare with other countries?". Office of National Statistics. 29 August 2019. Retrieved 5 October 2019.
- ^ "'Huge contrasts' in devolved NHS". BBC News. 28 August 2008.; Triggle, Nick (2 January 2008). "NHS now four different systems". BBC News.
- ^ Julian Go (2007). "A Globalizing Constitutionalism?, Views from the Postcolony, 1945–2000". In Arjomand, Saïd Amir (ed.). Constitutionalism and political reconstruction. Brill. pp. 92–94. ISBN 978-90-04-15174-1.
- ^ Ferguson 2004, p. 307.
- ^ "Most Influential Countries". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
- ^ "UK publishing industry reports record-breaking year in 2022". The Guardian. 17 April 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2024.
- ^ "Best-selling Book Series Of All Time". Wordsrated. 20 July 2023. Retrieved 18 May 2024.
- ^ "William Shakespeare (English author)". Britannica Online encyclopedia. Retrieved 26 February 2006.; MSN Encarta Encyclopedia article on Shakespeare. Archived from the original on 9 February 2006. Retrieved 26 February 2006.; William Shakespeare. Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 26 February 2006.
- ^ "Mystery of Christie's success is solved". The Telegraph. London. 19 December 2005. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
- ^ Ciabattari, Jane (December 2015). "The 25 greatest British novels". BBC Culture. Retrieved 29 December 2021.
- ^ "Edinburgh, United Kingdom, UNESCO City of Literature". Unesco. 2004. Archived from the original on 28 May 2013. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ "Early Welsh poetry". BBC Wales. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
- ^ Lang, Andrew (2003) [1913]. History of English Literature from Beowulf to Swinburne. Holicong, PA: Wildside Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-8095-3229-2.
- ^ "Dafydd ap Gwilym". Academi.org. 2011. Archived from the original on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 3 January 2011.
Dafydd ap Gwilym is widely regarded as one of the greatest Welsh poets of all time, and amongst the leading European poets of the Middle Ages.
- ^ "True birthplace of Wales's literary hero". BBC News. 5 December 1999. Archived from the original on 16 March 2020. Retrieved 28 April 2012.
- ^ "Kate Roberts: Biography". BBC Wales. Archived from the original on 24 July 2012. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
- ^ "The Chronicles of Narnia Book Series Statistics". Wordsrated. 19 July 2023. Retrieved 18 May 2024.
- ^ Varty, Anne (2014). A Preface to Oscar Wilde. Routledge. pp. 231–232. ISBN 978-1-317-89231-1.; "Oscar Wilde". Encyclopedia.com. Cengage. Retrieved 10 December 2019.
- ^ Moss, Joyce (2001). British and Irish Literature and Its Times: The Victorian Era to the Present (1837–). Gale Group. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-7876-3729-3.
- ^ Holroyd, Michael (1989). Bernard Shaw, Volume 2: 1898–1918: The Pursuit of Power. Chatto & Windus. p. 384. ISBN 978-0-7011-3350-4.; "G B Shaw". Discovering Literature: 20th century. British Library. Archived from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 10 December 2019.
- ^ Middleton, Tim (2006). Joseph Conrad. Routledge. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-415-26851-6.
- ^ Cooper, John Xiros (2006). The Cambridge Introduction to T. S. Eliot. Cambridge University Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-1-139-45790-3.
- ^ Sim, Wai-chew (2009). Kazuo Ishiguro. Routledge. p. 201. ISBN 978-1-135-19867-1.
- ^ "Salman Rushdie". Oxford Reference. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 10 December 2019.
- ^ Campbell, James (17 May 2008). "Home from home". The Guardian. Retrieved 10 December 2019.; Nadel, Ira (2004). Ezra Pound: A Literary Life. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-230-37881-0.
- ^ Fieser, James, ed. (2000). A bibliography of Scottish common sense philosophy: Sources and origins (PDF). Bristol: Thoemmes Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 April 2023. Retrieved 17 December 2010.
- ^ Palmer, Michael (1999). Moral Problems in Medicine: A Practical Coursebook. Cambridge: Lutterworth Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-7188-2978-0.; Scarre, Geoffrey (1995). Utilitarianism. London: Routledge. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-415-12197-2.
- ^ "British Citizen by Act of Parliament: George Frideric Handel". UK Parliament. 20 July 2009. Archived from the original on 26 March 2010. Retrieved 9 March 2015.; Andrews, John (14 April 2006). "Handel all'inglese". Playbill. New York. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 11 September 2009.
- ^ Iemperley, Nicholas (2002). "Great Britain". Grove Music Online (8th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0.; Banfield, Stephen; Russell, Ian (2001). "England (i)". Grove Music Online (8th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0.; Lewis, Geraint; Davies, Lyn; Kinney, Phyllis (2001). "Wales". Grove Music Online (8th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0.; Elliott, Kenneth; Collinson, Francis; Duesenberry, Peggy (2001). "Scotland". Grove Music Online (8th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0.; White, Harry; Carolan, Nicholas (2011). "Ireland". Grove Music Online (8th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0.; "British 20th century composers". BBC. Retrieved 21 April 2022.
- ^ "30 of the greatest violinists on record". Gramophone. 21 June 2022. Retrieved 4 March 2024.;"Katherine Jenkins has officially sold the most classical albums this century". Classic FM. 1 January 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2024.;"Who is Roderick Williams, the British baritone and composer at the King's coronation?". Classic FM. 6 May 2023. Retrieved 4 March 2024.;"Michael Ball". English National Opera. 23 February 2024. Retrieved 4 March 2024.;"Alfie Bow". Classic FM. Retrieved 4 March 2024.;"Sarah Brightman facts". Smooth Radio. 11 July 2023. Retrieved 4 March 2024.
- ^ R. Middleton, et al., "Pop", Grove music online, retrieved 14 March 2010. (subscription required) Archived 13 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Pop", The Oxford Dictionary of Music, retrieved 9 March 2010.(subscription required) Archived 12 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Allsop, Laura (1 July 2011). "Birmingham, England ... the unlikely birthplace of heavy metal". CNN. Retrieved 28 February 2022; Bentley, David (4 June 2013). "Midlands rocks! How Birmingham's industrial heritage made it the birthplace of heavy metal". Birmingham Post. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
- ^ "The Rolling Stones | Biography & History". AllMusic. Retrieved 22 July 2020.
- ^ Tom Larson (2004). History of Rock and Roll. Kendall/Hunt Pub. pp. 183–187. ISBN 978-0-7872-9969-9.
- ^ "Glam Rock". Encarta. Archived from the original on 28 August 2009. Retrieved 21 December 2008.
- ^ "NME Originals: Goth". NME. 2004. Archived from the original on 26 January 2008. Retrieved 30 September 2013.
- ^ "Pop/Rock » Psychedelic/Garage". AllMusic. Retrieved 6 August 2020.
- ^ "The Sex Pistols". RollingStone.com. 2001. Archived from the original on 1 February 2013. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
- ^ Henderson, Alex (1 August 2003). British Soul. Allmusic. Retrieved 6 March 2011.; AllMusic – Dubstep Archived 23 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine "Absorbed and transfigured elements of techno, drum'n' bass and dub"; Goldman, Vivien (31 January 2012). "Local Groove Does Good: The Story Of Trip-Hop's Rise From Bristol". NPR.
- ^ "5 U.K. Rappers Primed to Take Over America in 2018". Billboard. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
- ^ "1960–1969". EMI Group. Archived from the original on 25 April 2014. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ "Paul At Fifty". Time. New York. 8 June 1992. Archived from the original on 6 February 2009.
- ^ Most Successful Group The Guinness Book of Records 1999, p. 230. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ "Beatles a big hit with downloads". Belfast Telegraph. 25 November 2010. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
- ^ "British rock legends get their own music title for PlayStation3 and PlayStation2" (Press release). EMI. 2 February 2009. Archived from the original on 23 April 2014. Retrieved 9 March 2015.; Khan, Urmee (17 July 2008). "Sir Elton John honoured in Ben and Jerry ice cream". The Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 30 July 2008.; Alleyne, Richard (19 April 2008). "Rock group Led Zeppelin to reunite". The Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 31 March 2010.; "Floyd 'true to Barrett's legacy'". BBC News. 11 July 2006.; Holton, Kate (17 January 2008). "Rolling Stones sign Universal album deal". Reuters. Retrieved 26 October 2008.; Walker, Tim (12 May 2008). "Jive talkin': Why Robin Gibb wants more respect for the Bee Gees". Independent. London. Archived from the original on 13 October 2011. Retrieved 26 October 2008.
- ^ "Brit awards winners list 2012: every winner since 1977". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 28 February 2012.
- ^ "Harry Styles Has Weathered the Post-Boy Band Storm Better Than Most". Consequence of Sound. 12 January 2020. Retrieved 15 September 2020.; "10 Years of One Direction: The Story of the World's Biggest Boy Band, Told With the Fans Who Made It Happen". Billboard. 16 July 2020. Retrieved 15 September 2020.; Corner, Lewis (16 February 2012). "Adele, Coldplay biggest-selling UK artists worldwide in 2011". Digital Spy. Retrieved 22 March 2012.; Magliola, Anna Sky (30 November 2022). "Ed Sheeran's career journey: From street busker to global superstar". PlanetRadio.co.uk. Retrieved 7 January 2023.; "Dua Lipa, 77.5M Monthly listeners". Spotify. 6 May 2024.
- ^ Hughes, Mark (14 January 2008). "A tale of two cities of culture: Liverpool vs Stavanger". Independent. London. Archived from the original on 18 June 2018. Retrieved 2 August 2009.
- ^ "Glasgow gets city of music honour". BBC News. 20 August 2008. Retrieved 2 August 2009.
- ^ "Out of the melting pot: The origins and evolution of drum'n'bass". Red Bull. 25 June 2020. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
- ^ "Parties, protest and police: the neglected histories of UK dance music". Dazed. 3 August 2023. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
- ^ "Depeche Mode — Pioneers In Electronic Music". Medium. 22 August 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
- ^ "Rave". Oxford Music Online. 20 January 2001. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
- ^ "Mixmag's Greatest Dance Act of all Time Revealed". 19 January 2012. Archived from the original on 14 April 2012.;"Fred Again: who is the DJ who has thousands queuing for a 'secret rave' at the Sydney Opera House?". The Guardian. 26 February 2024. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
- ^ "Top 100 DJs Poll results 2003". Archived from the original on 7 December 2003.
- ^ Tate. "Art & Language – Art Term | Tate". Tate. Retrieved 8 September 2018.
- ^ Bayley, Stephen (24 April 2010). "The startling success of Tate Modern". The Times. London. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 19 January 2011. (subscription required)
- ^ "Vertigo is named 'greatest film of all time'". BBC News. 2 August 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
- ^ "The Directors' Top Ten Directors". British Film Institute. Archived from the original on 17 May 2012.
- ^ "The 24 Best British Directors of All Time". Movieweb. 13 May 2023. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
- ^ "Top 22 U.K. Film Directors". IMDB. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
- ^ "5 of the best … Richard Curtis films". The Times. 17 April 2024. Retrieved 4 June 2024.
- ^ "The UK's top 50 film directors". Televisual. 23 May 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
- ^ "Harry Potter becomes highest-grossing film franchise". The Guardian. London. 11 September 2007. Retrieved 2 November 2010.
- ^ "UK Film Industry Statistics 2023". 10 April 2023. Archived from the original on 17 February 2024. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
- ^ "The UK box office in 2019" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 February 2024. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
- ^ "UK Film and Television Studios Market Report" (PDF). Knight Frank. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
- ^ "Baftas fuel Oscars race". BBC News. 26 February 2001. Retrieved 14 February 2011.
- ^ Else, David (2007). Inghilterra. EDT srl. p. 76. ISBN 978-88-6040-136-6.
- ^ "Classic British cuisine ranked by Britons". 11 June 2019.
- ^ "United Kingdom". Michelin Guide. Retrieved 13 May 2024.
- ^ "The tea-rific history of Victorian afternoon tea". The British Museum. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
- ^ "No meat please, we're British: now a third of us approve of vegan diet". The Guardian. London. 25 December 2021. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
- ^ "Robin Cook's chicken tikka masala speech". The Guardian. London. 19 April 2001. Retrieved 7 September 2021.; BBC E-Cyclopedia (20 April 2001). "Chicken tikka masala: Spice and easy does it". BBC. Retrieved 28 September 2007.
- ^ "BBC: World's largest broadcaster & Most trusted media brand". Media Newsline. Archived from the original on 5 October 2010. Retrieved 23 September 2010.
- ^ "Digital license". Prospect. Archived from the original on 7 November 2011. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ "About the BBC – What is the BBC". BBC Online. Archived from the original on 16 January 2010. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ "BBC: World's largest broadcaster & Most trusted media brand". Media Newsline. 13 August 2009. Archived from the original on 10 May 2011. Retrieved 19 June 2011.; "TV Licence Fee: facts & figures". BBC Press Office. April 2010. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011.
- ^ "Microsoft Word – The Work of the BBC World Service 2008–09 HC 334 FINAL.doc" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 16 February 2011.
- ^ "News in your language – BBC News". Bbc.co.uk.; "BBC World Service". Facebook.com.
- ^ "Publications & Policies: The History of ITV". ITV.com. Archived from the original on 11 April 2011.
- ^ "Direct Broadcast Satellite Television". News Corporation. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011.
- ^ "ABCs: National daily newspaper circulation September 2008". The Guardian. London. 10 October 2008. Retrieved 17 October 2008.
- ^ William, D. (2010). UK Cities: A Look at Life and Major Cities in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Eastbourne: Gardners Books. ISBN 978-9987-16-021-1, pp. 22, 46, 109 and 145.
- ^ "Publishing". Department of Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original on 5 May 2011.
- ^ "Annual Report 2015–2016" (PDF). internationalpublishers.org. International Publishers Association. 2016. p. 16. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 August 2023. Retrieved 14 January 2021.
- ^ "Top 20 countries with the highest number of Internet users". Internet World Stats. Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 19 June 2011.
- ^ Dring, Christopher (12 January 2023). "European console and PC game sales fall 7.1% in 2022". GamesIndustry.biz. Retrieved 30 September 2023.
- ^ "About UK Video Games Industry". TIGA. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
- ^ "Opening Ceremony of the Games of the XXX Olympiad" (PDF). Olympic.org. 27 July 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2013. Retrieved 30 November 2013.
- ^ Mehaffey, John. "Unparalleled Sporting History". Reuters. London. Archived from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 30 November 2013.
- ^ a b "Rugby Union 'Britain's Second Most Popular Sport'". Ipsos-Mori. 22 December 2003. Retrieved 28 April 2013.
- ^ Rudd, Alyson (7 April 2008). "The father of football deserves much more". The Times. London. Retrieved 29 January 2015.; "Sheffield FC: 150 years of history". FIFA. 24 October 2007. Archived from the original on 25 October 2007. Retrieved 29 January 2015.
- ^ Ebner, Sarah (2 July 2013). "History and time are key to power of football, says Premier League chief". The Times. London. Retrieved 30 November 2013.
- ^ Mitchell, Paul (November 2005). "The first international football match". BBC Sport Scotland. Retrieved 15 December 2013.
- ^ Harlow, Phil (5 August 2008). "Why is there no GB Olympics football team?". BBC Sport. Retrieved 31 December 2010.
- ^ "Six ways the town of Rugby helped change the world". BBC News. 1 February 2014. Retrieved 29 January 2015.
- ^ Godwin, Terry; Rhys, Chris (1981). The Guinness Book of Rugby Facts & Feats. Guinness Superlatives. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-85112-214-4.
- ^ Louw, Jaco; Nesbit, Derrick (2008). The Girlfriends Guide to Rugby. Johannesburg: South Publishers. ISBN 978-0-620-39541-0.
- ^ "The journey of India in Commonwealth Games in 2022". The Times of India. Retrieved 29 June 2023.
- ^ "Union Jack or Union Flag?". The Flag Institute. Retrieved 26 September 2022.
- ^ "college-of-arms.gov.uk". The College of Arms. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
- ^ "Welsh dragon call for Union flag". BBC News. 27 November 2007. Retrieved 17 October 2008.
- ^ "Britannia on British Coins". Chard. Retrieved 25 June 2006.
- ^ Baker, Steve (2001). Picturing the Beast. University of Illinois Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-252-07030-3.
- ^ "Who is John Bull". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
Travel information from Wikivoyage
Data from Wikidata
- United Kingdom from BBC News
- United Kingdom. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- United Kingdom from UCB Libraries GovPubs (archived 6 April 2009)
Wikimedia Atlas of United Kingdom
Geographic data related to United Kingdom at OpenStreetMap- Key Development Forecasts for the United Kingdom from International Futures
Government
- Official website of HM Government
- Official website of the British Monarchy
- Official website of the British Prime Minister's Office
Travel
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
| Geographic | |
| Academics | |
| People | |
| Other | |
